1. Clauses and Sentences

2. Clauses A clause is a group of words with its own subject and verb. Clauses, like phrases, are groups of related words, but unlike phrases, they have a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand by itself as a complete sentence. All complete sentences must contain at least one independent clause. Examples: My aunt visited Africa for two weeks. (1) Wilma went to South Africa, and her sister went to Egypt. (2)

3. Clauses A dependent clause is CANNOT stand by itself as a complete sentence; it can only be part of a sentence. Subordinate clauses can be adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. Examples We visited Kenya, which is a country in Africa, for two weeks. (Adjective describing Kenya) Because he woke up late, he missed the flight. (Adverb modifying missed) They have decided that you should study more. (Noun – direct object)

4. Adjective Clause An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun by telling what kind? or which one? Adjective clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun. that, which, who, whom, or whose Sometimes they may begin with a relative adverb such as: before, since, when, where, or why.

5. Adjective Clause Examples: Ghana, which means “land of gold,” lies just north of the equator in Africa. It was called “Gold Coast” by European traders who found gold in abundance in this area. The sun never shines on days when I can enjoy it. *Adjective clauses are set off by commas when they are not essential to the meaning of a sentence.*

6. The Functions of Relative Pronouns Relative pronouns connect adjective clauses to the words the clauses modify. Subjects The city that is the largest is New York. Direct Objects The movie that you recommended is no longer playing. Objects of the Preposition The person of whom you spoke is my friend. Adjectives She is a poet whose work I greatly admire.

7. Notice: Relative pronouns are sometimes left out of adjective clauses. The missing word, nevertheless, is understood and still functions in the sentence. Examples: The flowers that she bought made him sneeze. The flowers she bought made him sneeze. The relatives whom they visited were cousins. The relatives they visited were cousins.

8. Adverb Clauses An adverb clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a verbal by telling when, where, in what way, to what extent, under what condition, or why. All adverb clauses begin with subordinating conjunctions. Most commonly used: Aftereven thoughunless Althoughifuntil Asin order thatwhen As ifsince whenever As long asso thatwhere Becausethanwherever Beforethoughwhile

9. Adverb Clauses Examples: Wherever they need to go, Vai people carry their possessions on their heads. (where) I will help you with your history whenever you ask. (when) He ran as if he had twisted an ankle. (in what way) She ran more rapidly than I did. (to what extent) If you visit the Uge people, they may give you a kola nuts as a sign of welcome. (why/ under what condition) Jeanette wanted to stay because the band was good. (why)

10. Adverb Clauses Examples: Modifying a Verb They will be caught unless they can run faster. Modifying an Adjective The cheetah is swift because his legs are built for speed. Modifying an Adverb The storm struck sooner than the forecasters expected.

11. Elliptical Clauses An elliptical clause is a clause in which the verb or the subject and the verb are understood but not actually stated. When adverb clauses beginning with as or than are used to express comparisons, words are sometimes left out. Examples: He runs faster than I run. He runs faster than I. I respect her more than I respect him. I respect her more than him.

12. Noun Clauses A noun clause is a subordinate clause that acts as a noun. Subject: What happened next surprised us all. Direct Object: The nomads find whatever water is in the desert. Indirect Object: The teacher gave whoever presented an oral report extra credit. Predicate Nominative: The big question is whether he will be allowed to play on the team. Object of a Preposition: They store their food in plastic or in whatever containers they have.

13. Four Sentence Structures Simple Sentence: single independent clause; no subordinate clause. Compound Sentence: two or more independent clauses; no subordinate clause. Complex Sentence: one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Compound-Complex Sentence: two or more independent clauses at least one subordinate clause.

14. Four Sentence Structures Simple Sentence: single independent clause; no subordinate clause. Simple sentences express one thought and have only ONE subject-verb combination. *(May have compound subjects and predicates.) Examples: Jack walked to Dairy Queen. Jack dropped his ice cream cone on the sidewalk. Leslie and Jessica laughed at Jack. Jack took out his wallet and bought another ice cream cone. Jack is satisfied.

15. Four Sentence Structures Compound Sentence: two or more independent clauses; no subordinate clause. Compound sentences have at least TWO subject-verb combinations. Compound sentences are connected by a coordinating conjunction, a conjunctive adverb, correlative conjunctions, or a single semicolon. Examples: Tim scored the winning goal, and the fans cheered loudly. (coordinating conjunction) I was hungry for pizza; however, Mary is allergic to cheese. (conjunctive adverb) Not only did I fail the test, but I also failed for the quarter. (correlative conjunction) This slide of notes is too long; my hand is killing me.

16. Four Sentence Structures Practice: Connect the following sentences using both a coordinating conjunction and a conjunctive adverb. 1) The president’s recommendation called for a tax increase. Very few senators will vote for it. 2) The handwriting was almost illegible. The spelling was very poor throughout the paper. 3) Most house plants prefer a lot of sun. Some houseplants like shade. 4) Pollution is ruining our water. Soon we may have to ration water.

17. Four Sentence Structures Complex Sentence: one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Complex sentences have TWO or more subject-verb combinations. ONE subject-verb combination must be in the main clause. Other subject-verb combinations will be in the subordinating clause(s). Examples: I bought the book that was recommended. We are excited because we are going to the concert. When I was three, my family moved to New Jersey because my mom’s company transferred her.

18. Four Sentence Structures Compound - Complex Sentence: two or more independent clauses at least one subordinate clause. Compound - Complex sentences have THREE or more subject- verb combinations. TWO subject verb combinations are a part of separate independent clauses. Also, there is at least ONE subordinate clause. Ex: Even though government aid finally came, many people had already been reduced to poverty, and others had been forced to move. Bruno took the desktop computer that he uses at work, and Pauline sat on the beach with her laptop computer, which she connects to the internet with a cellular phone.