1. Making peace Winners and Losers

2. From war to ‘peace’ 1917-1918 Allied blockade and battlefield losses take toll Allied blockade and battlefield losses take toll Economic supply lines disrupted Economic supply lines disrupted Belligerents increasingly exhausted Belligerents increasingly exhausted Russia, Germany, Austria & others increasingly short of men, materiel, foodstuffs Russia, Germany, Austria & others increasingly short of men, materiel, foodstuffs Willingness to fight saggingWillingness to fight sagging Governments’ support & legitimacy waningGovernments’ support & legitimacy waning Similar problems in France: threats of mutiny Similar problems in France: threats of mutiny

3. The Russian Revolution Tsar’s government teetering Tsar’s government teetering February revolution (1917) February revolution (1917) Soviets (councils seize power in citiesSoviets (councils seize power in cities Kadets & then Social Democrats form provisional governmentsKadets & then Social Democrats form provisional governments Lenin and Trotsky engineer October Revolution – in effect a coup d’etat Lenin and Trotsky engineer October Revolution – in effect a coup d’etat ‘All power to the Soviets.’‘All power to the Soviets.’ Bolsheviks seize power Bolsheviks seize power

4. A likely or unlikely revolution? Orthodox Marxism predicts that revolution will occur at the highest phases of capitalism Orthodox Marxism predicts that revolution will occur at the highest phases of capitalism Russia before the war was Russia before the war was An agrarian societyAn agrarian society Barely beyond feudalismBarely beyond feudalism Incipient industrializationIncipient industrialization At best at the initial phases of capitalismAt best at the initial phases of capitalism

5. Lenin Takes voluntarist approach Takes voluntarist approach Left to their own devices, workers develop trade union consciousnessLeft to their own devices, workers develop trade union consciousness but not the class consciousness needed to drive a revolutionbut not the class consciousness needed to drive a revolution If revolution is to occur, a small conspiratorial organization must drive it - If revolution is to occur, a small conspiratorial organization must drive it - Communist party acts as vanguard of the proletariat Communist party acts as vanguard of the proletariat Argues that capitalism is like a chain: Argues that capitalism is like a chain: breaks at its weakest link,breaks at its weakest link, triggering revolution elsewheretriggering revolution elsewhere

6. Before & after the revolution

7. Some images

8. Afterward: Bolsheviks sue for peace Bolsheviks sue for peace Accept humiliating terms at Brest-Litovsk (1918) – cede substantial territory Accept humiliating terms at Brest-Litovsk (1918) – cede substantial territory Civil war through 1920 Civil war through 1920 White RussiansWhite Russians Foreign interventionsForeign interventions Internally : Internally : War communismWar communism Problem: What do you do when the world revolution you expect does not occur ?Problem: What do you do when the world revolution you expect does not occur ?

9. Germany: Fights on Fights on breakthrough on western front, spring 1918breakthrough on western front, spring 1918 beaten back in counter-attacksbeaten back in counter-attacks Kaiser’s grip increasingly tenuous Kaiser’s grip increasingly tenuous Frequent changes in governmentFrequent changes in government Move toward constitutional monarchy (October 1918)Move toward constitutional monarchy (October 1918) General strikeGeneral strike Revolutionary outbreaksRevolutionary outbreaks General staff sues for peace General staff sues for peace Kaiser abdicatesKaiser abdicates Social Democrats take overSocial Democrats take over

10. Central Europe Collapse of Austria-Hungary Collapse of Austria-Hungary War winds down War winds down Revolution breaks out in Hungary Revolution breaks out in Hungary

11. Ending the war Central powers collapse Central powers collapse Germany sues for peace Germany sues for peace War ends with armistice War ends with armistice Fighting stops without total defeat or invasionFighting stops without total defeat or invasion Germans hope to negotiate as equals Germans hope to negotiate as equals Allies intent on imposing peace Allies intent on imposing peace Meet in Paris to work it outMeet in Paris to work it out

12. Problems How to: Establish stable international order Establish stable international order Respond to national aspirations while not ignoring strategic considerations, claims based on history and promises made by allies Respond to national aspirations while not ignoring strategic considerations, claims based on history and promises made by allies Provide security for France Provide security for France Prevent resurgence of German militarism Prevent resurgence of German militarism Compensate victors for damage suffered Compensate victors for damage suffered

13. Negotiating the peace (1919-20) Massive conference: 32 countries present, 32 countries present, Dominated by great powers: Dominated by great powers: US, UK, France, Italy, Japan US, UK, France, Italy, Japan Exclusion of Germany Exclusion of Germany Absence of neutrals Absence of neutrals Absence of the Soviet Union Absence of the Soviet Union Multiple negotiations under way: Multiple negotiations under way: Discussion of principlesDiscussion of principles Expert committeesExpert committees Separate treaties concludedSeparate treaties concluded

14. The protagonists and their goals Woodrow Wilson (U.S.) -- idealist who wanted to Woodrow Wilson (U.S.) -- idealist who wanted to Make the world safe for democracyMake the world safe for democracy Establish a new international order– via League of NationsEstablish a new international order– via League of Nations David Lloyd George (Great Britain) David Lloyd George (Great Britain) Interest in restoring Britain’s global positionInterest in restoring Britain’s global position Georges Clemenceau( France) -- a realist Georges Clemenceau( France) -- a realist Aging cynic/ French nationalistAging cynic/ French nationalist Interest in security for FranceInterest in security for France ReparationsReparations Orlando - Italy Orlando - Italy Interest in territorial gainsInterest in territorial gains Japan – interest in replacing Germany in China Japan – interest in replacing Germany in China

15. Wilson’s Fourteen Points (January 1918) Open covenants openly arrived at Open covenants openly arrived at Freedom of the seas Freedom of the seas Elimination of trade barriers Elimination of trade barriers Arms reduction Arms reduction Evacuation of occupied territories Evacuation of occupied territories National self determination for diverse peoples: National self determination for diverse peoples: Return Alsace Lorraine to FranceReturn Alsace Lorraine to France Re-establish PolandRe-establish Poland Self-determination for nationalities within Austria-Hungary, Ottoman empireSelf-determination for nationalities within Austria-Hungary, Ottoman empire An international organization to keep the peace (League of Nations) An international organization to keep the peace (League of Nations)