1. Sorting Chapter 11

2. 2 Sorting Consider list x 1, x 2, x 3, … x n We seek to arrange the elements of the list in order –Ascending or descending Some O(n 2 ) schemes –easy to understand and implement –inefficient for large data sets

3. 3 Categories of Sorting Algorithms Selection sort –Make passes through a list –On each pass reposition correctly some element

4. 4 Categories of Sorting Algorithms Insertion sort –Repeatedly insert a new element into an already sorted list –Note this works well with a linked list implementation

5. 5 Categories of Sorting Algorithms Exchange sort –Systematically interchange pairs of elements which are out of order –Bubble sort does this All these have computing time O(n 2 )

6. 6 Improved Schemes We seek improved computing times for sorts of large data sets Chapter presents schemes which can be proven to have worst case computing time O( n log 2 n ) Heapsort Quicksort

7. 7 Heaps A heap is a binary tree with properties: 1.It is complete Each level of tree completely filled Except possibly bottom level (nodes in left most positions) 2.It satisfies heap-order property Data in each node >= data in children

8. 8 Heaps Example Not a heap – Why? Heap 22 12 14 24 28 22 1214 28 24

9. 9 Implementing a Heap Use an array or vector Number the nodes from top to bottom –Number nodes on each row from left to right Store data in i th node in i th location of array (vector)

10. 10 Implementing a Heap If heap is the name of the array or vector used, the items in previous heap is stored as follows: heap[0]=78; heap[1]=56; heap[2]=32; heap;[3]=45; heap;[4]=8; heap[5]=23; heap[6]=19;

11. 11 Implementing a Heap In an array implementation children of i th node are at heap[2*i+1] and heap[2*(i+1)] Parent of the i th node is at heap[(i-1)/2]

12. 12 Converting a Complete Binary Tree to a Heap Percolate down the largest value

13. 13 Tighter Analysis of Complexity of Build Heap Suppose we have n elements. We want to build a heap of n elements. We present an O(n) algorithm to do so. Insert these elements in n positions of an array. –Is an almost complete binary tree. –But does not satisfy the heap order So we need to interchange these elements to obtain heap order 751637129474239186 0123456789 Heap

14. 14 Parents are at position n/2 to 1. If we percolate these down suitably, (interchange with lesser of the two children, if it is less than either of the two children, and so on), then we will get heap order. For (j = n/2; j--; j >0) Percolate Down (j); Percolate Down 751637129474239186 0123456789 Heap

15. 15 PercolateDown (j) { If (2j > n) break; If Heap[j]  min(Heap[2j],Heap(2j+1), break; If (Heap[2j] < Heap[2j + 1]) { interchange(Heap[j], Heap[2j]); Percolate Down (2j); } else { interchange(Heap[j], Heap[2j+1]); Percolate Down (2j+1); } } Percolate Down

16. 16 Convert Complete Binary Tree to a Heap

17. 17 Convert Complete Binary Tree to a Heap

18. 18 Heapsort Consider array x as a complete binary tree and use the Heapify algorithm to convert this tree to a heap. 1. For i = n down to 2: Interchange x[1] and x[i], thus putting the largest element in the sublist x[1],...,x[i] at end of sublist. 2. Apply the PercolateDown algorithm to convert the binary tree corresponding to the sublist stored in positions 1 through i - 1 of x.

19. 19 Heapsort In PercolateDown, the number of items in the subtree considered at each stage is one-half the number of items in the subtree at the preceding stage. Thus, the worst-case computing time is O(log 2 n). Heapify algorithm executes PercolateDown n/2 times: worst-case computing time is O(nlog 2 n). Heapsort executes Heapify one time and PercolateDown n - 1 times; consequently, its worst-case computing time is O(n log 2 n). Internet Animation Applet

20. 20 Heapsort

21. 21 Heapsort Note the way the large values are percolated down

22. 22 Quicksort A more efficient exchange sorting scheme than bubble sort –A typical exchange involves elements that are far apart –Fewer interchanges are required to correctly position an element. Quicksort uses a divide-and-conquer strategy –A recursive approach –The original problem partitioned into simpler sub- problems, –Each sub problem considered independently. Subdivision continues until sub problems obtained are simple enough to be solved directly

23. 23 Quicksort Choose some element called a pivot Perform a sequence of exchanges so that –All elements that are less than this pivot are to its left and –All elements that are greater than the pivot are to its right. Divides the (sub)list into two smaller sub lists, Each of which may then be sorted independently in the same way.

24. 24 Quicksort If the list has 0 or 1 elements, return. // the list is sorted Else do: Pick an element in the list to use as the pivot. Split the remaining elements into two disjoint groups: SmallerThanPivot = {all elements < pivot} LargerThanPivot = {all elements > pivot} Return the list rearranged as: Quicksort(SmallerThanPivot), pivot, Quicksort(LargerThanPivot).

25. 25 Quicksort Example Given to sort: 75, 70, 65,, 98, 78, 100, 93, 55, 61, 81, Select, arbitrarily, the first element, 75, as pivot. Search from right for elements <= 75, stop at first element <75 Search from left for elements > 75, stop at first element >=75 Swap these two elements, and then repeat this process 84 68

26. 26 Quicksort Example 75, 70, 65, 68, 61, 55, 100, 93, 78, 98, 81, 84 When done, swap with pivot This SPLIT operation placed pivot 75 so that all elements to the left were 75. –See code page 602 75 is now placed appropriately Need to sort sublists on either side of 75

27. 27 Quicksort Example Need to sort (independently): 55, 70, 65, 68, 61 and 100, 93, 78, 98, 81, 84 Let pivot be 55, look from each end for values larger/smaller than 55, swap Same for 2 nd list, pivot is 100 Sort the resulting sublists in the same manner until sublist is trivial (size 0 or 1)

28. 28 Quicksort Note the partitions and pivot points Note code pgs 602- 603 of text Internet ExampleInternet Example

29. 29 Quicksort Performance is the average case computing time –If the pivot results in sublists of approximately the same size. O(n 2 ) worst-case –List already ordered, elements in reverse –When Split() repetitively results, for example, in one empty sublist

30. 30 Improvements to Quicksort Quicksort is a recursive function –stack of activation records must be maintained by system to manage recursion. –The deeper the recursion is, the larger this stack will become. The depth of the recursion and the corresponding overhead can be reduced –sort the smaller sublist at each stage first

31. 31 Improvements to Quicksort Another improvement aimed at reducing the overhead of recursion is to use an iterative version of Quicksort() To do so, use a stack to store the first and last positions of the sublists sorted "recursively".

32. 32 Improvements to Quicksort An arbitrary pivot gives a poor partition for nearly sorted lists (or lists in reverse) Virtually all the elements go into either SmallerThanPivot or LargerThanPivot –all through the recursive calls. Quicksort takes quadratic time to do essentially nothing at all.

33. 33 Improvements to Quicksort Better method for selecting the pivot is the median-of-three rule, –Select the median of the first, middle, and last elements in each sublist as the pivot. Often the list to be sorted is already partially ordered Median-of-three rule will select a pivot closer to the middle of the sublist than will the “first- element” rule.

34. 34 Improvements to Quicksort For small files (n <= 20), quicksort is worse than insertion sort; –small files occur often because of recursion. Use an efficient sort (e.g., insertion sort) for small files. Better yet, use Quicksort() until sublists are of a small size and then apply an efficient sort like insertion sort.

35. 35 Mergesort Sorting schemes are either … –internal -- designed for data items stored in main memory –external -- designed for data items stored in secondary memory. Previous sorting schemes were all internal sorting algorithms: –required direct access to list elements not possible for sequential files –made many passes through the list not practical for files

36. 36 Mergesort Mergesort can be used both as an internal and an external sort. Basic operation in mergesort is merging, –combining two lists that have previously been sorted –resulting list is also sorted.

37. 37 Mergesort The general algorithm for the merge sort is as follows: 1.if list is of size greater than 1 a)Divide the list into two sublists. b)Merge sort the first sublist. c)Merge sort the second sublist. d)Merge the first sublist and the second sublist.

38. 38 Merge Flow Chart Open files, read 1st records Trans key > OM key Write OM record to NM file, Trans key yet to be matched Trans key = = OM key Compare keys Trans Key < OM key Type of Trans Add OK Other, Error Modify, Make changes Del, go on Another example was the file merge program done as last assignment in CS2