1. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 1 Chapter 7 The Theory and Estimation of Cost

2. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 2 Overview Definition and use of cost Relating production and cost Short run and long run cost Economies of scope and scale Supply chain management Ways companies have cut costs to remain competitive

3. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 3 Learning objectives define the cost function distinguish between economic cost and accounting cost explain how the concept of relevant cost is used

4. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 4 Learning objectives understand total, variable, average and fixed cost distinguish between short-run and long- run cost provide reasons for the existence of economies of scale

5. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 5 Importance of cost in managerial decisions  Ways to contain or cut costs popular during the past decade most common: reduce number of people on the payroll outsourcing components of the business merge, consolidate, then reduce headcount

6. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 6 Definition and use of cost in economic analysis  Relevant cost: a cost that is affected by a management decision  Historical cost: cost incurred at the time of procurement  Opportunity cost: amount or subjective value that is forgone in choosing one activity over the next best alternative  Incremental cost: varies with the range of options available in the decision  Sunk cost: does not vary in accordance with decision alternatives

7. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 7 Relationship between production and cost  Cost function is simply the production function expressed in monetary rather than physical units We assume the firm is a ‘price taker’ in the input market

8. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 8 Relationship between production and cost  Total variable cost (TVC) = the cost associated with the variable input, found by multiplying the number of units by the unit price  Marginal cost (MC) = the rate of change in total variable cost The law of diminishing returns (Chapter 6) implies that MC will eventually increase

9. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 9 Relationship between production and cost Plotting TP and TVC illustrates that they are mirror images of each other When TP increases at an increasing rate, TVC increases at a decreasing rate

10. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 10 Short-run cost function  For simplicity use the following assumptions: the firm employs two inputs, labor and capital the firm operates in a short-run production period where labor is variable, capital is fixed the firm produces a single product the firm employs a fixed level of technology the firm operates at every level of output in the most efficient way the firm operates in perfectly competitive input markets and must pay for its inputs at a given market rate (it is a ‘price taker’) the short-run production function is affected by the law of diminishing returns

11. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 11 Short-run cost function  Standard variables in the short-run cost function: Quantity (Q) is the amount of output that a firm can produce in the short run Total fixed cost (TFC) is the total cost of using the fixed input, capital (K)

12. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 12 Short-run cost function  Standard variables in the short-run cost function: Total variable cost (TVC) is the total cost of using the variable input, labor (L) Total cost (TC) is the total cost of using all the firm’s inputs, TC = TFC + TVC

13. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 13 Short-run cost function  Standard variables in the short-run cost function: Average fixed cost (AFC) is the average per-unit cost of using the fixed input K AFC = TFC/Q Average variable cost (AVC) is the average per-unit cost of using the variable input L AVC = TVC/Q

14. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 14 Short-run cost function  Standard variables in the short-run cost function: Average total cost (AC) is the average per-unit cost of all the firm’s inputs AC = AFC + AVC = TC/Q Marginal cost (MC) is the change in a firm’s total cost (or total variable cost) resulting from a unit change in output MC = TC/Q = TVC/Q

15. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 15 Short-run cost function  Graphical example of the cost variables

16. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 16 Short-run cost function  Important observations AFC declines steadily when MC = AVC, AVC is at a minimum when MC < AVC, AVC is falling when MC > AVC, AVC is rising The same three rules apply for average cost (AC) as for AVC

17. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 17 Short-run cost function  A reduction in the firm’s fixed cost would cause the average cost line to shift downward A reduction in the firm’s variable cost would cause all three cost lines (AC, AVC, MC) to shift

18. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 18 Short-run cost function  Alternative specifications of the Total Cost function (relating total cost and output) cubic relationship  as output increases, total cost first increases at a decreasing rate, then increases at an increasing rate

19. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 19 Short-run cost function  Alternative specifications of the Total Cost function (relating total cost and output) quadratic relationship  as output increases, total cost increases at an increasing rate linear relationship  as output increases, total cost increases at a constant rate

20. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 20 Long-run cost function  In the long run, all inputs to a firm’s production function may be changed  because there are no fixed inputs, there are no fixed costs  the firm’s long run marginal cost pertains to returns to scale  at first increasing returns to scale, then as firms mature they achieve constant returns, then ultimately decreasing returns to scale

21. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 21 Long-run cost function  When a firm experiences increasing returns to scale: a proportional increase in all inputs increases output by a greater proportion as output increases by some percentage, total cost of production increases by some lesser percentage

22. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 22 Long-run cost function  Economies of scale: situation where a firm’s long-run average cost (LRAC) declines as output increases  Diseconomies of scale: situation where a firm’s LRAC increases as output increases  In general, the LRAC curve is u-shaped.

23. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 23 Long-run cost function  Reasons for long-run economies specialization of labor and capital prices of inputs may fall with volume discounts in firm’s purchasing use of capital equipment with better price-performance ratios larger firms may be able to raise funds in capital markets at a lower cost larger firms may be able to spread out promotional costs

24. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 24 Long-run cost function  Reasons for diseconomies of scale scale of production becomes so large that it affects the total market demand for inputs, so input prices rise transportation costs tend to rise as production grows, due to handling expenses, insurance, security, and inventory costs

25. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 25 Long-run cost function In long run, the firm can choose any level of capacity Once it commits to a level of capacity, at least one of the inputs must be fixed. This then becomes a short- run problem The LRAC curve is an envelope of SRAC curves, and outlines the lowest per-unit costs the firm will incur over a range of output

26. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 26 Learning curve  Learning curve: line showing the relationship between labor cost and additional units of output downward slope indicates additional cost per unit declines as the level of output increases because workers improve with practice

27. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 27 Economies of scope  Economies of scope: reduction of a firm’s unit cost by producing two or more goods or services jointly rather than separately Closely related to economies of scale

28. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 28 Supply chain management  Supply chain management (SCM): efforts by a firm to improve efficiencies through each link of a firm’s supply chain from supplier to customer transaction costs are incurred by using resources outside the firm coordination costs arise because of uncertainty and complexity of tasks information costs arise to properly coordinate activities between the firm and its suppliers

29. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 29 Supply chain management  Ways to develop better supplier relationships strategic alliance: firm and outside supplier join together in some sharing of resources competitive tension: firm uses two or more suppliers, thereby helping the firm keep its purchase prices under control

30. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 30 Ways companies cut costs to remain competitive  the strategic use of cost  reduction in cost of materials  using information technology to reduce costs  reduction of process costs  relocation to lower-wage countries or regions  mergers, consolidation, and subsequent downsizing  layoffs and plant closings

31. Chapter SevenCopyright 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall. 31 Global application  Example: manufacturing chemicals in China  labor content relatively low  high use of equipment and raw materials  noncost reasons for outsourcing