1. WJEC Psychology PY 2 Core Studies Gardner, B. T. & Gardner, R. A. (1969) “Teaching Sign Language to a Chimpanzee”

2. Communication and Language Communication - transmitting information from one individual or group to another individual or group. Animals can certainly communicate with each other. The debate is about whether they can use something similar to human language to do this. Language is a small number of signals (sounds, letters, gestures) that by themselves are meaningless, but which can be organised into meaningful combinations and using certain rules to make an infinite number of messages.

3. What is Language? With a partner – write as detailed an explanation as you can. (4 minutes) Compare with another pair and add extr ideas that you find.(4 minutes) P98

4. Communication and Language Noam Chomsky (1957) argued humans have Language Acquisition Device (LAD) We are programmed to learn language in a way different to other animals. Human cultures all over the world have language Children learn language very quickly. But are we really so different from other animals?

5. Context If a chimp can be taught to use and understand language, then humans are not unique in being able to communicate I this way. Hayes and Hayes(1951) spent several YEARS teaching a chimp called Vicky to say FOUR words. Kellogg & Kellogg(1933) had similar problems with Gua, who seemed to understand around 100 spoken words

6. Context Premack and Premack (1966) Sarah (chimpanzee) Learned to use chips of different colours and shapes (130 signs, sentences up to 8 signs long) BUT did not spontaneously ask questions.

7. Context Continued Perhaps the problem is in chimps vocal cords – if we provide them with another way of “speaking” they could develop the use and understanding of language. Yerkes (1943) lab chimps spontaneously beg and solve problems with their hands – sign language would be appropriate)

8. Aims Allen and Beatrice Gardner wanted to see if a chimp could communicate with humans. Chimps are constrained by their vocal chords from repeating some sounds, so the Gardners wanted to see if a chimp could learn sign language.

9. Method A single participant case study (chimpanzee named Washoe)

10. Participant A chimpanzee named Washoe who was between 8 – 11 months old when first acquired by the Gardners. She had been born in the wild in Africa and taken to America. A chimp was chosen because they are intelligent and sociable.

11. Procedure The researchers decided to teach Washoe American Sign Language (ASL) for several reasons: Chimps are physically unable to vocalise some sounds. Chimps are very good at using their hands. ASL is equivalent to spoken language. ASL would allow them to compare Washoe’s progress with that of deaf children who also learn ASL.

12. Procedures All people who dealt with Washoe had to master ASL. The Gardners made sure that Washoe had lots of companions who were also learning ASL. All communication with Washoe was through ASL approved signs.

13. Procedures Operant conditioning training methods were used which meant that each time Washoe produced a sign that was recognisable, she was rewarded by being tickled (she loved being tickled). Records were kept of her signing behaviour.

14. Procedure To decide whether a sign had been learned properly a double blind procedure was used by the researchers. They put a box with a picture inside where Washoe would play. When she opened the box and saw the picture, she made a sign. The sign was observed by a researcher and noted. A second researcher, who could not see the box, also recorded what they thought the sign that Washoe had made represented. This was then checked and only if the sign corresponded to the picture and was used in context for a period of 15 consecutive days, was it counted as being learned.

15. Procedure Imitation – “Do this” not very successful Prompting –correcting sloppy signing by imitation Using signs – the way humans use spoken language around a baby Babbling – playing with hands Direct tuition

16. Findings Washoe spontaneously imitated but it wasn’t until the 16 th month of work (when Washoe was about 2 – 2½ years old) that the Gardners had any control over her gestures. They encouraged her to babble by smiling, clapping and repeating, especially when the babbling resembled ASL.

17. Findings Washoe learned the term ‘more’ through play. At first she would indicate she wanted more tickling by putting the researcher’s hands on her ribs. They noticed that when she was tickled, she put her arms together to cover the area being tickled. This gesture is very similar to the ASL sign for ‘more’. They encouraged her by rewarding her whenever she used the sign by more tickling. She soon learned to associate the sign with the tickling that resulted.

18. Findings At the end of 22 months, Washoe could use about 30 word signs. 4 other words – dog, smell, me and clean- were stable but didn’t meet criteria. More – food/tickling Drink – for water. Pop = drink+sweet Sorry – After biting someone, when told to apologise. Baby – Dolls: human or animals Please – asking for object or activity

19. Findings Words Learned Come-gimme funny flower please. Sorry you hurt cat baby – go out!

20. Findings First 7 months – 4 new signs First 14 months – 13 new signs total First 21 months – 30 new signs total + 4 not stable – dog smell me clean

21. Findings Like human children, once she had about 8 signs She could combine the signs to make short messages such as ‘Washoe go out’ She was also able to invent novel phrases, such as “listen dog” to refer to barking of unseen dog “open food drink” for open refrigerator

22. Findings Washoe’s language resembled human children in 3 ways: Differentiating – Separating signs for different meanings eg “flower” “smell” Transfer – generalising from one flower to other types of flowers Combining Signs – putting together phrases eg “listen dog”

23. Conclusion The choice of sign language was a good one as it did allow Washoe to communicate with her companions. It showed that chimps can learn more than a few words. Washoe’s ability to combine signs and transfer meanings from specific to general cases suggests a lot more is possible

24. Conclusion Washoe’s signs do not remain specific to their original contexts which would suggest that she has learned language. The Gardners are reluctant to say whether Washoe has language. BUT she was clearly able to communicate with Gardners.

25. Evaluation - Methodology Method : Case Study Advantage – allowed the Gardner’s to treat Washoe like a human child and create a “natural” human-like environment. Advantage – provided a lot of qualitative data. Disadvantage – how typical a chimpanzee was Washoe?

26. Evaluation - Methodology The choice of sign language was good because it enabled Washoe to copy words that she would never be able to vocalise. Washoe was able to use learned signs in a wide variety of contexts: "open" for example would be used with doors, tins and nuts showing she had learned language.

27. Evaluation - Methodology Reliability Three observers agreed on a sign. Fifteen days use. Use of box to test signing ability. This seems a reasonable method and we would expect to get replicable results using this procedure.

28. Evaluation - Methodology Validity Observer bias – researchers influenced by relationship with Washoe? Was Washoe using language, or just responding to cues from researches? See Clever Hans p140 in textbook – is it the same for Washoe. Is the Washoe study supported by other animal research?

29. Evaluation - Methodology Ethical Issues Washoe taken out of her environment to satisfy human curiosity – is this right? Ethical to teach language to animals? Do the findings of this research justify depriving Washoe of her natural environment?

30. Evaluation – Other Research Savage-Rumbaugh(1991) – 10 years of training Kanzi on a Lexigram. Kanzi learned some words observing his mother being taught so Savage-Rumbaugh kept the training similar to the environment a child would experience. Kanzi learned 200 words and understood simple rules (action before object) which suggests that chimps don’t simply learn signs. This Supports Gardner and Gardner because….

31. Evaluation – Alternative Evidence KEY QUESTION – can chimps learn and use a human language? Gardners didn’t want to get involved in philosophical debate. Happy that they could COMMUNICATE with Washoe. Other research might tell us more about what chimps can do

32. Evaluation – Alternative Evidence More Gardner Research. WASHOE Died at 40 Vocabulary – 250 signs Reported everyday conversations Moja, Tatu & Dar Loulis

33. Evaluation – Alternative Evidence More Gardner Research. Moja, Tatu & Dar All raised from new born Different ages, so like siblings In training, signs used for dialogue, rather than simply for requests ( to avoid operant conditioning) This supports and develops Gardner’s findings because…

34. Evaluation – Alternative Evidence More Gardner Research. LOULIS Adopted. Trainers only used 7 signs in his presence: who, which, want, where, name, that, sign Loulis acquired 50 signs from other chimps. Mirrors the way human children learn. This supports Gardner’s research because….

35. Evaluation – Alternative Evidence Terrace (1979). NIM CHIMPSKY Learned 125 signs and made different combinations. 20,000 combinations in 2 years Found difference with human child language. Concluded – Nim was not using equivalent of human language. This opposes Gardner’s research because…

36. Evaluation – Alternative Evidence Savage Rumbaugh et al (1986, 1993) KANZI & MULIKA Kanzi – learned Lexigram from mother. By 17 months, 2500 combinations Fewer than Nim, but other-focused. Found Kanzi’s learning better than “common” chimps (Individual Differences) This supports Gardner’s research because….

37. Evaluation – Other Research Computer Language : ELIZA Computers can produce language in response to humans. Does this mean they can understand it? How does this relate to Washoe’s use of signs? This contradicts the work of Gardner because….