1. Nic Butler, Ph.D. Charleston County Public Library Special Collections Paper Identification 101

2. What is Paper?

3. Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibers

4. What is Paper? Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibers Typically made from vegetable fibers composed of cellulose

5. What is Paper? Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibers Typically made from vegetable fibers composed of cellulose Paper begins as a fibrous pulp separated from wood, cotton, grass, etc., by a mechanical or chemical or process

6. What is Paper? Paper = a thin mat of intertwining fibers Typically made from vegetable fibers composed of cellulose Paper begins as a fibrous pulp separated from wood, cotton, grass, etc., by a mechanical or chemical process Paper is an organic substance that breaks down over time and can become weak, brittle, and discolored

7. Outline Handmade Paper Machine-made Paper Blue Paper Newspaper “Acidic” Paper Kraft Paper Ph Testing Shameless Self-Promotion

8. Handmade Paper

9. Screening Pulp from a Vat

10. Drying sheets of paper

11. Laid Paper

12. Made one sheet at a time in a frame or mould

13. Laid Paper Made one sheet at a time in a frame or mould Laid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mould

14. Laid Paper Made one sheet at a time in a frame or mould Laid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mould Chain lines = Bolder parallel lines about one to two inches apart formed by thicker wires that secure the laid wires to the mould

15. Laid Paper Made one sheet at a time in a frame or mould Laid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mould Chain lines = Bolder parallel lines about one to two inches apart formed by thicker wires that secure the laid wires to the mould Watermark = Distinguishable letter, image, or symbol incorporated into paper during the manufacturing process

16. Laid Paper Made one sheet at a time in a frame or mould Laid lines = Closely-spaced parallel lines formed by rows of metal wires in the mould Chain lines = Bolder parallel lines about one to two inches apart formed by thicker wires that secure the laid wires to the mould Watermark = Distinguishable letter, image, or symbol incorporated into paper during the manufacturing process Grain is parallel to the chain lines

17. A Paper Mould

18. Laid Lines

19. A Paper Mould Chain Line Laid Lines

20. A Paper Mould Chain Line Laid Lines Water Mark

21. Viewing a watermark

22. Watermark designs

23. 1742 English Book

25. 1742 Book: laid & chain lines

26. 1742 Book: watermark

27. Machine-Made Paper

28. Fourdrinier Machine

29. 1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France

30. Fourdrinier Machine 1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France 1804–7: first machines built in England

31. Fourdrinier Machine 1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France 1804–7: first machines built in England 1817: machine imitated in U.S.

32. Fourdrinier Machine 1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France 1804–7: first machines built in England 1817: machine imitated in U.S. 1827: first true Fourdrinier machine in U.S.

33. Fourdrinier Machine 1798: continuous paper-making machine developed in France 1804–7: first machines built in England 1817: machine imitated in U.S. 1827: first true Fourdrinier machine in U.S. Basis of modern papermaking machines

34. Fourdrinier Machine, 1850s

35. Fourdrinier Machine, early 1900s

36. Rolls of modern paper

37. Wove Paper

38. All machine-made paper is wove paper

39. Wove Paper All machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollers

40. Wove Paper All machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollers Uniform wire mesh creates even density

41. Wove Paper All machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollers Uniform wire mesh creates even density Watermark can be created by using a “dandy roll” (with a soldered wire pattern)

42. Wove Paper All machine-made paper is wove paper Pulp is poured or sprayed onto a continuous wire mesh conveyor mounted on rollers Uniform wire mesh creates even density Watermark can be created by using a “dandy roll” (with a soldered wire pattern) Grain is harder to determine, but is usually parallel to the length of the sheet

43. 1816 Wove Paper

44. 1817 Laid Paper

45. “Dandy Roll” Creates a watermark on wove paper

46. Wove Paper Watermark (1823)

49. Blue Paper

50. Early Blue Paper

51. Venetian Blue (15th–16th centuries)

52. Early Blue Paper Venetian Blue (15th–16th centuries) Bleue Hollande (17th–18th centuries)

53. Early Blue Paper Venetian Blue (15th–16th centuries) Bleue Hollande (17th–18th centuries) Prussian Blue dye introduced in early 1700s

54. Early Blue Paper Venetian Blue (15th–16th centuries) Bleue Hollande (17th–18th centuries) Prussian Blue dye introduced in early 1700s Indigo: most widespread dye in textile and paper production

55. Early Blue Paper Venetian Blue (15th–16th centuries) Bleue Hollande (17th–18th centuries) Prussian Blue dye introduced in early 1700s Indigo: most widespread dye in textile and paper production –Insoluble in water, so it requires chemical additives like urine to break down –Indigo dye not suited to mass production of textiles

56. 1742 English Book...

57. ... was bound with Blue Laid Paper

58. 1742 Blue Laid Paper (detail)

59. 19th Century Blue Paper

60. Spike in U.S. production, 1840s–1860s

61. 19th Century Blue Paper Spike in U.S. production, 1840s–1860s Recycling of Levi Strauss’s denim jeans?

62. 19th Century Blue Paper Spike in U.S. production, 1840s–1860s Recycling of Levi Strauss’s denim jeans? –No, Levi’s denim introduced in the 1870s

63. 19th Century Blue Paper Spike in U.S. production, 1840s–1860s Recycling of Levi Strauss’s denim jeans? –No, Levi’s denim introduced in the 1870s 1828: Discovery of synthetic urea in Germany

64. 19th Century Blue Paper Spike in U.S. production, 1840s–1860s Recycling of Levi Strauss’s denim jeans? –No, Levi’s denim introduced in the 1870s 1828: Discovery of synthetic urea in Germany 1830s: Use of indigo in the textile industry expands rapidly

65. 19th Century Blue Paper Spike in U.S. production, 1840s–1860s Recycling of Levi Strauss’s denim jeans? –No, Levi’s denim introduced in the 1870s 1828: Discovery of synthetic urea in Germany 1830s: Use of indigo in the textile industry expands rapidly 1840s: Recycled indigo rags become paper

66. 1854 Blue Laid Paper

67. 1854 Blue Wove Paper

68. Newspaper

70. 17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper

71. Newspaper 17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper 1810s: European machine-made paper enables newspapers to be printed cheaply in larger quantities

72. Newspaper 17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper 1810s: European machine-made paper enables newspapers to be printed cheaply in larger quantities 1850s: newspapers still +-100% rag content

73. Newspaper 17th & 18th century: Newspapers printed in limited numbers on hand-made laid paper 1810s: European machine-made paper enables newspapers to be printed cheaply in larger quantities 1850s: newspapers still +-100% rag content 1880s: wood pulp largely replaces cotton pulp

74. 1818 N.Y. Evening Post Printed on cotton rag wove paper

75. 1830 New York Mirror Printed on cotton rag wove paper

76. “Acidic” Paper

77. Increasing Acidity of Paper

78. 1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany

79. Increasing Acidity of Paper 1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany 1867: Use of calcium bisulfite to chemically pulp wood patented in the U.S.

80. Increasing Acidity of Paper 1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany 1867: Use of calcium bisulfite to chemically pulp wood patented in the U.S. 1874: First commercial sulfite pulping mill built in Sweden

81. Increasing Acidity of Paper 1840s: Mechanical wood pulping machines developed in Germany 1867: Use of calcium bisulfite to chemically pulp wood patented in the U.S. 1874: First commercial sulfite pulping mill built in Sweden –Dominant method of pulping wood into the 1930s –Results in a paper with high acid content

82. 1864 Confederate newsprint

83. Made with inferior materials (probably a combination of cotton rag and wood pulp)

84. 1859 Charleston Directory contains acidic paper…

85. … and some alkaline paper...

86. … and some acidic color adverts …

87. … and an advert for paper …

88. Note the variety of laid and wove paper

89. 1914 Acidic Paper

90. 1931 acidic French paper

91. Kraft Paper

92. Kraft Process

93. 1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength)

94. Kraft Process 1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength) 1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in Sweden

95. Kraft Process 1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength) 1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in Sweden Uses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulp

96. Kraft Process 1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength) 1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in Sweden Uses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulp Produces stronger paper with less lignin than the sulfite process--less likely to discolor

97. Kraft Process 1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength) 1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in Sweden Uses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulp Produces stronger paper with less lignin than the sulfite process--less likely to discolor By 1940 is dominant method of pulping wood

98. Kraft Process 1879: Invented in Germany (Kraft = strength) 1890: First Kraft pulp mill built in Sweden Uses sodium sulfide to chemically break down wood chips into paper pulp Produces stronger paper with less lignin than the sulfite process--less likely to discolor By 1940 is dominant method of pulping wood Well suited to pulping resinous wood like pine

99. Ph Testing

100. Ph Testing Pens Results are often difficult to interpret

101. Ph Testing Kit Use with clean, Ph neutral, distilled water

102. 1799 Document

103. 1799 document = Acidic

104. Two 1801 documents

105. The chemical make up and storage history of each document has produced different aging characteristics

106. 100% Rag Paper Doesn’t necessarily mean Acid-Free!

107. Why Does Paper Break Down?

108. Acids present in 18th century paper, too

109. Why Does Paper Break Down? Acids present in 18th century paper, too Lignin (an organic polymer) present in old papers, too, but more common in wood pulp paper

110. Why Does Paper Break Down? Acids present in 18th century paper, too Lignin (an organic polymer) present in old papers, too, but more common in wood pulp paper Conservators now think it’s the sizing

111. Sizing Agents

112. Size: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finish

113. Sizing Agents Size: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finish –Hard sized paper = writing paper –Weak sized paper = newsprint –Unsized paper = blotter paper

114. Sizing Agents Size: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finish –Hard sized paper = writing paper –Weak sized paper = newsprint –Unsized paper = blotter paper Gelatin (animal) sizing used for centuries

115. Sizing Agents Size: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finish –Hard sized paper = writing paper –Weak sized paper = newsprint; –Unsized paper = blotter paper Gelatin (animal) sizing used for centuries Rosin sizing introduced in 1820s

116. Sizing Agents Size: substance applied to paper to control its absorbency and/or to smooth its finish –Hard sized paper = writing paper –Weak sized paper = newsprint; –Unsized paper = blotter paper Gelatin (animal) sizing used for centuries Rosin sizing introduced in 1820s Alum (acidic) sizing introduced in 1870s

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