2. Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal. Aron Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down. Aron Ralston AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren

3. Perspectives on Motivation Five perspectives used to explain motivation include the following: 1.Instinct Theory (replaced by the evolutionary perspective) 2.Drive-Reduction Theory 3.Incentive Theory 4.Cognitive Theory 5.Hierarchy of Motives

4. Instinct Theory Instincts: are patterns of behavior that are inherited and unlearned. Instincts generally serve to help survival. Examples: Salmon swim upstream to reproduce – survival of species. Rooting of human infants – survival of individual.  Under Darwin’s influence, early theorists viewed motivation as resulting in purposeful behavior that is ultimately directed toward the fundamental goal of evolutionary fitness, and as being controlled by instincts.  When it became clear that people were naming (6,000), not explaining, various behaviors by calling them instincts, this approach fell into disfavor.

5. Drives and Incentives When the instinct theory of motivation failed, it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. Drive-reduction theory says: a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need or in other words act. Our goal is homeostasis (balance), internal stability.

6. Incentive Our needs push our behavior (Push us to act) Incentives pull us toward behavior that allows us to obtain them. Incentive Theory: Environmental factors such as reinforcers or rewards that motivate behavior. When there is both a need (hunger) and an incentive (smell of freshly baked bread), we feel strongly driven.

7. Cognitive Theory What is there is no reward in the behavior we are engaging in? (Volunteering to run a soup kitchen or train for an ultra-marathon) Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behaviors we find personally rewarding, fulfilling or challenging. Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior because it reduces a drive or a reward/incentive is involved.

8. A Hierarchy of Motives Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition. (1908-1970)

9. Hierarchy of Needs Hurricane Survivors Menahem Kahana/ AFP/ Getty Images Mario Tama/ Getty Images David Portnoy/ Getty Images for Stern Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis

10. Hunger When are we hungry? When do we eat? When there is no food in our stomach. When we are hungry. How do we know when our stomach is empty? Our stomach growls. These are also called hunger pangs. BUT…We don’t always eat just when we have hunger pangs? WHY??

11. The Physiology of Hunger Stomach contractions (pangs) send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger.

12. Factors that Influence Eating Habits 1. Biological 2. Genetic 3. Psychological

13. Biological Factors Hypothalamus: Structure in the limbic system that regulates many behaviors regarding motivation such as thirst, sexual behavior, and regulation of hunger. Biological Factors: Changes in blood chemistry and signals from the digestive organs to the brain signaling to eat or to stop eating.

14. Hypothalamus – Pleasure Center of the Brain Rat with an electrode implanted in a reward center of its hypothalamus Rat readily crosses an electrified grid, accepting the painful shocks, to press a lever that sends electrical impulses to its "pleasure centers." How often did the rat press the lever in an hour? 7,000 times!!! It finally collapsed from exhaustion (Olds 1958)

15. Genetic Factors Genetic Hunger Factors: Genetic instructions that include number of fat cells as well as our metabolic rate (how fast you burn calories) Set Point: Certain level of fat our body strives to maintain constant throughout our lives.

16. The Psychology of Hunger Psychological Hunger Factors: Learned associations, societal pressures, individual personality traits.

17. Optimal Weight Optimal or Ideal Weight: The near perfect balance of how much food a human/animal eats and how much it needs to meets its energy needs. Calorie: Simple measurement of how much energy a food item contains Overweight: 20% over ideal body weight Obesity: 30% or more over ideal body weight

18. Obesity http://www.cyberdiet.com A disorder characterized by being excessively overweight. Obesity increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems. For women, obesity is linked to late-life Alzheimer’s and brain tissue loss.

19. Body Mass Index (BMI) Obesity in children increases their risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer, thus shortening their life- expectancy. How to calculate BMI: Weight. In kg (lbs x.45) / squared height in meters (in./39.4 squared). The US government recommends a BMI under 25.

20. BMI & Obesity At 5′9” tall and weighing 110 lbs, Barbie would have a BMI of 16.24 which is considered severely underweight. Because of her ridiculous proportions (39” bust, 18” waist, 33” thighs and a size 3 shoes!), if she was a real woman, she wouldn’t be able to walk upright – she would have to walk on all fours. Note that the target market for Barbie Doll sales are girls ages 3 to 12. 30.6% of America is considered obese, more than any other nation. Between 1962 and the year 2000, the number of obese Americans grew from 13% to an alarming 31% of the population. 63% of Americans are overweight with a Body Mass Index (BMI) in excess of 25.0. 31% are obese with a BMI in excess of 30.0. Childhood obesity in the United States has more than tripled in the past two decades. The average American watches more than 4 hours of TV each day (or 28 hours/week, or 2 months of nonstop TV-watching per year). In a 65-year life, that person will have spent 9 years glued to the tube.

21. In the United States: One out of three women and one out of four men are on a diet at any given time. Two thirds of dieters regain the weight within one year and virtually all regain it within five years. 35% of occasional dieters progress into pathological dieting. The diet industry (diet foods, diet programs, diet drugs, etc.) takes in over $40 billion each year and continues to grow. 30% of women chose an ideal body shape that is 20% underweight and an additional 44% chose an ideal body shape that is 10% underweight. The average U.S. woman is 5’4” and weighs 140 pounds whereas the average U.S. model is 5’11” and weighs 117 pounds.

22. Food Consumption Over the past 40 years, average weight gain has increased. Health professionals are pleading with US citizens to limit their food intake. Since 1960, the average American adult has grown 1 inch and gained 23 pounds. Since 1971, women are eating 300 more calories a day and men 200 more. Today’s teens consume 2x as much soda as milk, the reverse of 25 years ago.

23. Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa: A condition in which a normal- weight person (usually an adolescent woman) continuously loses weight but still feels overweight.

25. Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa: A disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise. Those who do significant binge eating, followed by remorse - but do not purge, fast, or exercise excessively - are said to have binge-eating disorder.

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27. Typical Reasons for Eating Disorders 1.Family: Younger generations develop eating disorders when raised in families in which weight is an excessive concern. Family also tends to be highly competitive, high- achieving and protective. 2.Genetics: Twin studies show that eating disorders are more likely to occur in identical twins rather than fraternal twins.