1. General Education, Composition Kaplan University
CM 220 Unit 2 Seminar
General Education, Composition
Kaplan University

2. UNIT 2 ACTIVITIES
Reading: Unit 2 overview; The Kaplan Guide to Successful Writing, pp. 36, 43, ; Fallacy Gallery; article on campaign for non-smoking
Invention Lab: Develop research questions and a potential working thesis statement
Seminar: Thesis workshop, logical fallacy discussion, and discussion about graphic cigarette warnings article
Project: “Elevator pitch” of big idea and research strategy
Tech Lab: Slide presentations, traditional and animated options

3. What is Prewriting? Why should you use it?
Once you've decided on a topic and have done
a little research, it's time to begin writing.
(Easier said than done! LOL)
It is difficult to write if you have NOTHING to write
about! This is where prewriting comes in handy.
What is Prewriting?
Why should you use it?

4. Prewriting Techniques
The artist and the judge…
The judge
The artist
Prewriting allows you to let ideas in before you can judge them. This helps you generate ideas to use as content for your essays.

5. Prewriting is the first step in the writing process.
This is where you gather ideas and discover topics before you attempt to write on that blank page or computer screen. You can use prewriting to find a topic or to decide upon a topic. You can also use prewriting to decide upon a thesis statement.
There are different methods of prewriting. You can select the one that works best for you.

6. What are some of the strategies
for prewriting?

7. Brainstorming
Brainstorming or Listing is a very easy technique. Many people like this method. You simply sit down and for five to ten minutes list everything you can think of about the topic as it pops into your mind. When you cannot think of anything else to write, then sort the information into categories.

8. What are some strategies for prewriting?
Brainstorming/listing.
Simply sit down and for five to ten minutes list everything you can think of as it pops into your mind about the topic. When you cannot think of anything else to write, then sort the information into categories.
Another method is to simply write the categories and rewrite your list underneath.

9. Styles: Sedan, Convertible
For example, we will assume you are writing about cars and have made a huge list:
Topic: Cars
Makes: Honda Lexus
Styles: Sedan, Convertible
Costs: Purchase Prices Insurance Maintenance

10. Freewriting
Freewriting appeals to some. Using this technique you simply write and write about a topic. You record your thoughts, ideas, impressions, and feelings without interruption and without any concern for spelling, grammar, punctuation, or even logic.
The only problem with this style is that it really has no organization and you have to rewrite several times for organization. If this style does appeal to you, be sure to double space or skip lines so that you leave yourself room to make changes.

11. Clustering, Webbing, Bubbling, Mapping
This is a form of brainstorming, but with more organization. When you cluster, the topic is sorted for you as you write.
There are several formats of clustering. The basic one is to draw a circle in the center of your paper. Put your topic in this circle.
Your can find more information about clustering at a web site called Types of Maps: www-personal.umich.edu/~jmargeru/conceptmap/types.htm

12. Clustering, mapping, or webbing
Is a form of brainstorming only it is more organized.
Draw a circle in the center of your paper and as thoughts come to you about the topic lines are drawn with circles then additional thoughts are added.
It sorts your ideas as you go and is easily transferred into an outline.

13. Questioning
Questioning is an excellent way to begin writing about an unfamiliar assigned topic. The "Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How" technique is also excellent for prewriting for a research paper or report in your work area. This can also be used in combination with clustering or listing for research.

14. What is a THESIS? The main idea expressed in a written or visual work
It may be stated or implied
The author’s hypothesis or argument encapsulated in a sentence is the THESIS STATEMENT

15. THESIS STATEMENT
A thesis statement is composed of two parts: your topic + some point you want to make about your topic.
Once you’ve chosen your topic, find a research question that you’d like to answer. That will give you your point.
Without a thesis, your paper lacks direction.

16. RESEARCH QUESTION
This is a question YOU would like to answer through your research.
It can help you LIMIT your topic/big idea and provide you with a focus for a paper or argument.
It should be appropriate to the subject and limitations of the assignment.

17. EXAMPLE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
WHO benefits from decreased dependence on foreign oil?
WHAT is the best type of alternative fuel vehicle?
WHEN is the best time to invest in alternative fuel vehicles?
WHERE is the engine in an electric car?
HOW does an electric car work?
WHY does the US support offshore drilling?
SHOULD the US government offer tax incentives
NOTE THAT NOT ALL RESEARCH QUESTIONS WORK FOR A PAPER/PROJECT.

18. Research Question to Thesis
Topic/BIG IDEAS
Education
Public Health
Research Question/LIMITATION
How can student performance be improved in public schools?
Should health insurance for smokers be more expensive?
Thesis/POSITION
Adopting an all year school schedule will improve student performance.
Insurance premiums for smokers should not be increased.

19. PRELIMINARY THESIS
This is your INITIAL argument, what you think may be the answer to your research question.
Remember that a preliminary thesis CAN and WILL change.
It will be TESTED and REFINED through research.
If you are arguing a position, that position should be clear in the thesis.

20. THESIS WORKSHOP
Share your ideas. What are some potential BIG IDEAS you might like to focus on this term? What are some possible RESEARCH QUESTIONS you might like to explore with this topic? What are some PRELIMINARY THESIS STATEMENTS you might wish to pursue?

21. What is an ARGUMENT?
An argument is an issue that has at least TWO SIDES.
In order to present your side of the argument, you must know the various positions on your issue. If you don’t know the arguments for the other side, you leave yourself open to be blindsided by an attack. This is true for everything in life

22. What is a DECEPTIVE ARGUMENT?
Deceptive arguments may mislead you, causing you to believe the wrong information.
Because deceptive arguments often confuse and distract people, they may take attention from important issues. Deceptive arguments are often more emotionally charged, gaining bigger headlines.

23. Recognizing and Avoiding Deceptive Arguments
When researching, you need to read the information carefully and to apply your best critical thinking skills to what the author is saying.
Analyze and find the “holes” in the arguments that you are reading. Decide which arguments are valid and which are not.
With practice, you will become better at detecting deceptive arguments.

24. A persuasive argument is credible.
It is so trustworthy that readers can change their minds painlessly.
How do you build credibility?

25. To Build Credibility
Be thoroughly honest. Demonstrate integrity toward the topic. Do not falsify data, spin evidence, or ignore facts. Document your sources and cite them wherever appropriate.
Make realistic claims, projections, and promises. Avoid emotionally charged statements, pie-in-the-sky forecasts, and undeliverable deals.
Develop and maintain trust. From your first word to your last, develop trust. You do this by your attitude toward the topic, treatment of readers, and respect for opposing viewpoints.

26. Recognizing Deceptive Arguments
When you are doing your research, you need to read the information carefully and to apply your best critical thinking skills to what the author is saying. You must analyze the articles that you are reading and find the "holes" in the arguments. To do this, you must decide which arguments are valid and which are not.
The danger of deceptive arguments comes from their misleading nature, which may cause you to reject a valid opposing argument or embrace an argument that has little rational merit.

27. Beware of Deceptive Arguments
Deceptive arguments often distract people from the vital issues and focus their attention on matters of little importance. By reading and evaluating opposing views, you will become more proficient at recognizing deceptive arguments.
Many arguments seem reasonable at first reading; however, once students read the opposite opinion, they are forced to decide between two apparently equally plausible arguments. Though opponents may use the same statistics and even the same logic, they may reach different conclusions.

28. Recognizing Deceptive Arguments (Logical Fallacies)
When researching, you need to read the information carefully and to apply your best critical thinking skills to what the author is saying.
Analyze and find the “holes” in the arguments that you are reading. Decide which arguments are valid and which are not.
With practice, you will become better at detecting deceptive arguments.

29. Deceptive Arguments
Deceptive arguments may mislead you, causing you to believe the wrong information.
Because deceptive arguments often confuse and distract people, they may take attention from important issues. Deceptive arguments are often more emotionally charged, gaining bigger headlines.

30. Practice Reading & Thinking!
A big part of learning to write well is learning to read critically.
Read things you might not normally read, such as newspaper articles. Analyze them. What is the topic? What is the main point? What proof is offered? Look for “holes” in the thinking of the writer. Demand proof for assertions!

31. Demand Proof!
Example: A political add on TV in Florida stated that Florida Senator Bill Nelson, when he was a state official, caused insurance rates to rise.
My first thought: I’d like to see back up for that assertion. How did one person cause insurance rates to rise????
Since deceptive arguments may appear reasonable, it is important that you read both sides of all issues.

32. Some Types of Deceptive Arguments
False Dilemmas & Either/Or Statements
Bandwagon
Slanters
Persuasive Definitions
Personal Attacks
Post Hoc
Scare Tactics
Slippery Slope
Strawman
Testimonials
Generalizations
Categorical Statements
Begging the Question
False Analogy

33. Deceptive Argument: False Dilemmas & Either/Or Statements
There is no reason to have just two alternatives. Example: "Either you’ll vote for the Republican candidate or you’ll have to vote for the Democratic candidate."
Obviously, there are other alternatives: don't vote at all, or vote Libertarian or some other alternative party. To avoid false dilemmas (either this or that), we have to use our imaginations for the other possibilities.
Sometimes a false dilemma is stated without using "either...or." For example: "If you don't bring me flowers, then you don't really love me.” (EITHER you bring me flowers OR you don't love me.)

34. False Dilemmas: Either/Or Statements
Example: Either we’ll leave at 1 pm or at 1:30.
There is no reason to have just two alternatives.
You could leave at 1:05, 1:15, or any time in between 1 and 1:30.
To avoid false dilemmas, use your imagination to think of the other possibilities.

35. False Dilemma: “If…then” Statements & Perfectionism
False dilemmas can be “if…then” statements. This is a form of blatant manipulation.
Example: "If you really loved me, then you would…...”
False dilemmas can also be perfectionism, which states that if the solution is not perfect, then we shouldn’t bother.
Example: Since the FCATs are a poorly designed test, the schools shouldn’t do any standardized testing.

36. Bandwagon: the idea that everybody does it or believes it
I'm guessing that you have all used this type of argument when you were younger. You'd say to your parents, But everyone is going OR All of the kids have one of those.
And what answer did your mom give?
If everyone was going to jump off a cliff does that mean you should, too? LOL

37. Slanting: Labels
Labels used to persuade through emotionally charged language instead of reason.
Example:
According to the West, people who strap bombs to their bodies and blow up themselves and innocent civilians are suicide bombers.
According to radical Islamists, those same people are martyrs.

38. Slanting: Persuasive Definitions
Persuasive definitions are a form of slanting in which the definition closes off the argument because the definition is actually a conclusion instead of a real definition.
Example: The Iraq War is an illegal war being fought just for oil.
By defining the war as illegal and being fought just for oil, you are limiting all discussion. Those assertions would have to be proven.

39. Deceptive Argument: Slanters
Slanters attempt to persuade through inflammatory and exaggerated language instead of reason.
The adjectives used to describe people or their political positions often reveal the speaker's beliefs. Many do not intend to display their bias, but the words they use send a signal to careful readers and listeners.
For example: President Reagan called the guerillas fighting against the Nicaraguan government in the 1980s "freedom fighters." The Nicaraguan government called them "terrorists." The labels they chose slanted the way you viewed any claim about those people. Each label concealed a claim.
"Freedom fighters" – The guerillas are good people fighting to liberate their country and give their countrymen freedom
"Terrorists" – The guerillas are bad people, inflicting violence on civilians for their own partisan ends without popular support.

40. Slanters: Persuasive Definitions
One form of "slanting" is using persuasive definitions, by which someone tries to close off the argument by making a definition that should be the conclusion.
For example, when people define "abortion" to mean "the murder of an unborn child," they make it impossible to debate whether abortion is murder and whether a fetus is a human being. Those conclusions are built into the definition.
Another form of "slanting" is the loaded question, which conceals a dubious claim that should be argued for rather than assumed. For example, "When did you stop beating your wife?" The question assumes you either are or have been beating your wife.

41. Personal attack
People use this to attack their opponents personally instead of discussing ideas or behavior. They often attack their opponent’s character, family life, looks, or personal habits, rather than focusing on the issues.
Example: When Ann Coulter called Democrat presidential candidate John Edwards a “faggot,” she was attacking him personally instead of debating his ideas.

42. Deceptive Argument: Personal Attack
Personal attack - criticizing an opponent personally instead of rationally debating his/her ideas. Attacks focus on someone's appearance, personal habits, or character rather than focusing on the merits of the issue at hand.
The implication is that if something is wrong with the person, whatever he or she says or does must be wrong. It is the suggestions that deserve attention, not the person who makes them.
For example, "Sarah is divorced so whatever relationship advice she gives you can't be good." Sarah's marital status has nothing to do with the quality of her advice. Isn't it also possible that Sarah could be married and give terrible advice?

43. Post Hoc - Latin for "after this, therefore caused by this."
Just because one event comes after another event, doesn’t mean the second one is caused by the first.
Example: I turn out the light, and then the dog barked.
My turning out the light did not cause the dog to bark. The cat running down the hall did.

44. Deceptive Argument: Post Hoc
Post Hoc - Latin for "after this, therefore cause by this." - Politicians love this one!
Example: Since Governor Bush took office, unemployment of minorities decreased by 7%. Governor Bush should be applauded for reducing unemployment among minorities.
Before we pat the governor on the back, the speaker must show that Bush's policies are responsible for the decrease in unemployment. It is not enough to show the decrease came after his election.

45. Scare tactics
Scare Tactics use threat as a form of persuasion: “Do this….or else.” The issues discussed using scare tactics are usually real, but the method used is deceptive.
Example: We must close our borders NOW! Even as we speak, terrorists are slipping undetected into the U.S., possibly even carrying nuclear or biological bombs.
While it is true that terrorists may be entering our country, the speaker is trying to scare people into action instead of using reason.

46. Slippery Slope
This is another form of scare tactics. It’s premise is that once you start down the “slope,” it’s all down hill from there.
Example: If we allow illegal aliens to remain in our country, they will overwhelm our social services. American citizens will not be able to get help from the government. No one will speak English any more. All of our customs will be changed. Soon we will be little more than Mexico north.

47. Strawman
This means putting words into someone else’s mouth. The premise is that it is easier to knock down a straw person than a real one.
Example: The police chief said he was going to wait for the outcome of the investigation. It’s obvious that he doesn’t care about our community.
The police chief never said that he didn’t care about the community. The speaker put words in the police chief’s mouth in order to discredit him.

48. Testimony or Relying on Experts
When doing research, we accept the ideas of people who are knowledgeable in their fields.
Quoting an expert is a valid way of supporting your arguments. When you do this, however, be sure that you keep the meaning of the quote. Do not distort it by using it out of context.

49. Unreliable Testimony
Actors or athletes who advertise products often know little about those products.
Also, many people who make public statements have little knowledge about the issues they are discussing.
Example: Movie stars or rock stars give opinions on what the U.N. should or shouldn't do to end hunger in Africa. The fact that a person is famous in the entertainment field doesn't mean he or she knows how to solve problems in world affairs.

50. Generalizations & Stereotyping
A generalization is an assertion (argument) based on insufficient evidence.
Generalizations are often applied to groups that we feel are different than we are.
Stereotyping and sexism are forms of this fallacy.
Example: Blondes are dumb.
Obviously, not all blondes are dumb anymore than all women or all men are dumb.

51. Begging the Question
In this is a form of circular logic, the question remains, "begging" to be answered. Instead of providing support, the assertion is restated.
Example: Guns are deadly because they kill people.
The words deadly and kill people mean the same thing. Instead of proving that guns are deadly, the statement goes in a circle repeating its claim.

52. False Analogy – Comparing apples to oranges
Classic example: If we can put a man on the moon, why can't we find a cure for the common cold?
Medicine and space technology are not the same. Different scientists work in those fields and the advances made are not related.

53. Perfectionist Dilemma
Another form of false dilemma is the perfectionist dilemma, which assumes either the situation will be perfect if we do this, or we shouldn't do it (all or nothing at all)
For example: We shouldn't vote for raising property taxes to pay for improvements to the schools because no matter how much money we pour into the schools, they'll never be first rate.

54. Writing Tip of the Week: "Although" or "Though"
The words "although" or "though" can not be used in place of "however." For example, you can not say: "Although, I still made it to class on time."
The word "although" is a subordinator and begins a subordinate clause. Therefore, "Although, I still made class on time" is a fragment, not a sentence.
To make it a sentence, you could: (1) changed "although" to another word: "However, I still made it to class on time," (2) eliminated "although," which would leave "I made it to class on time," (3) or add the subordinate clause to a main clause: "Although I still made it to class on time, I had forgotten my book" OR "Although I was running late, I still made it to class on time."
Also, there would not be a comma after "although" or any other subordinator (because, after, since, before, when, even though, as if, as long as, until, unless, etc.)

55. APPLYING WHAT YOU KNOW
Let’s review the article by O’Hagearty, et al. The article concludes that the U.S. should use graphic warnings because graphic warning are likely to be effective in the U.S. Is the research valid? Does it have any weaknesses? Could the hypothesis be tested further? Would the use of graphic warnings be an example of the “appeal to fear” fallacy and, if so, would using them in an anti-smoking campaign be ethical? Does this argument rely on any LOGICAL FALLACIES?

56. How do we AVOID fallacies in our own writing?
Imagine you disagree with your own argument. Which of your arguments would not convince you and why? Which arguments are “fishy” or weak?
List your argument. List the evidence you provide for each claim. Look critically at this evidence.
Ask yourself which fallacies you are prone to make. Look for these in your arguments.
Review your argument for absolutes and sweeping generalizations (all, every, never, always)
Review the types of Logical Fallacies and review your argument for these problems (Fallacies, 2010).