1. Social Structure; Men, Women, Freedmen, Slaves

2. Social Structure and Status Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum reflected more than a century of Romanisation The basic unit of society was the household (familia) which included family members and slaves, headed by the paterfamilias There were three broad social classes: freeborn, freed (former slaves or liberti) and slaves

3. Within these groups there were distinctions, between citizens and non-citizens and privileged and non-privileged For example all freeborn had the right to vote, but not all had the right to stand for public office Clothing also distinguished social classes with the privileged wearing the toga while others wore the loosely belted tunic similar to that worn by slaves There was some mobility between the classes as slaves could be freed and become freed citizens; the sons of freedmen could become citizens Social Structure and Status

4. Freeborn Men Within the broad social class of freeborn were the senatorial elite; members of the Roman patrician class who had estates or villas in the Campanian region; the local elite; wealthy landowners and businessmen who dominated local government and ordinary citizens such as small scale farmers, shopkeepers and artisans

5. Over time, Roman patricians and members of the Imperial family had been attracted to Campania They had large agricultural estates, luxury villas around the Bay of Naples and beautiful houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum Freeborn Men

6. The Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum was owned by the father in law of Julius Caesar The Villa of Oplontis was owned by Poppaea, mistress and later wife of the Emperor Nero Freeborn Men

7. The proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus was a wealthy Roman who built the Suburban Baths in Herculaneum and had an equestrian statue and dedicatory alter erected in his honour Some local identities gained prestige from their wealth rather tan a patrician background They gained status by fulfilling political roles and maintaining a network of socio- political ties with friends (amici), clients (clientelae) and dependants Freeborn Men

8. In the patron-client system the wealthy elite operated as patrons to the less wealthy, advising them and taking care of their interests In return, clients gave deference and respects to their patrons, which was very useful at election times Marcus Holconius Rufus was a prominent local citizen of Pompeii and was an Augustalis (priest of the Imperial Cult); patron of the colony; town magistrate (duumvir), 5-year official (quinquennale) and military tribune The town erected a statue to him Freeborn Men

9. The banker Lucius Caecilius Jucundus was another prominent Pompeian who was very wealthy and owned a large town house and a villa rustica nearby He was the citizen son of a freedman, representing the upward social mobility that was possible Freeborn Men

10. Freedmen Freedmen or liberti were slaves who had been freed Their freedom could be granted by their owner or they could purchase it Many freedmen kept close connections with their former owners and even took their name Freedmen formed a significant part of the population and by AD79 many of them ran workshops and small businesses, often with slaves they had purchased

11. Some freedmen remained in lowly occupations but others gained considerable wealth as owners of estates and businesses The Vettii brothers were freedmen in Pompeii who were successful wine producers Their house was particularly luxurious and well-decorated The children of freedmen could become citizens Freedmen

12. Slaves Slaves were a feature of Roman society and there is evidence of their widespread presence in Pompeii and Herculaneum where it has been estimated that they made up at least ¼ of the population by AD79

13. Most slaves were part of a familia and fulfilled many roles in the household In wealthier households slaves worked as cooks, cleaners, nurses and servers Educated slaves worked as tutors to their owners’ children or as secretaries for their owners’ businesses Large houses had slave quarters; houses of the less wealthy had one or two small rooms for slaves Slaves

14. Slaves also worked in the workshops and businesses of their owners On agricultural estates slaves performed a range of manual tasks such as ploughing, planting, and harvesting and in the production of wine and olive oil Some slaves were owned by the town council and employed in public enterprises such as being attendant and furnace workers at the public baths Slaves

15. Inscriptions from Pompeii mention slaves who handled matters relating to public taxation Some slaves were performers who provided music and dancing at banquets and most gladiators were slaves Slaves could be bought and sold as recorded on waxed tablets Slaves could also be passed on as part of an inheritance Slaves

16. Freeborn Women Women of Pompeii and Herculaneum were represented in all three classes: freeborn, freed and slave While freeborn women could not vote or stand for public office, they took an interest and may have had some influence in local politics Asellina, who owned a tavern, showed her interest in politics by displaying slogans in support of a particular candidate

17. Some freeborn women owned property such as Julia Felix, who owned a large property in Pompeii and rented some its rooms Another woman in Pompeii was the priestess Eumachia She erected a large building in the forum, identified by some historians as a wool store An inscription on the entrance to the building indentifies her patronage A statue of Eumachia was found in the building, dedicated by the Fuller’s Guild Freeborn Women

18. Another wealthy woman in Pompeii, Mamia, daughter of Publius and holder of a public priestly office, erected the Temple to the spirit of Augustus next to the building of Eumachia ‘on her own land and at her own expense’ Mamia was a leader in Imperial worship and had her tomb paid for at public expense Freeborn Women

19. Women could own slaves and conduct business transactions A waxed tablet records a transaction between two women in AD61 involving a loan which used two slaves as security Freeborn Women

20. Freeborn women of wealthier families would have carried out traditional duties within a Roman household, supervision of one or two slaves as well as spinning and weaving Poorer freeborn women worked in a range of occupations outside the household Freeborn Women

21. Freedwomen Like their male counterparts, female slaves could be granted their freedom and become liberti Some freedwomen married well and established their own households The tomb erected by Naevoleia Tyche for her husband, shows that some freedwomen became rather wealthy Some freedwomen worked outside the household in the same occupations as poor freeborn women Others worked beside their husbands in various enterprises