1. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Starting Point Trigger Terrain Snow pack Simplistic Snow consolidates through melt & freeze Icy layers a hazard Graupel layers a hazard Soft layers potential hazard Profiles look for “different layers” Stability tests look for “IF” but not so much “WHY”.

2. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Outdoor professionals are more likely to get avalanched than anyone else Increased probability – time spent in avalanche terrain Avalanche terrain approaching routes and “getting off” Route choice (visibility) Group management conflict

3. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Build on existing knowledge Not so simple any more Understand “why we make bad decisions” “Heuristic Traps” Make better decisions about the snow Develop understanding Jargon Buster Help find (and understand) further info

4. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Atkins (2001) – In 41 accidents involving “avalanche aware” victims, 83% were due to decision making errors rather than subtleties of terrain or snowpack. Why might Instructors make poor decisions? Heuristic Traps

5. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Heuristic Trap - Commitment Cue: Prior commitment Behaviour:Consistency Trap:Critical change “They’ve paid me a lot for a good day out” “I promised them a walk to a peak this week”

6. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Heuristic Trap - Scarcity Cue:Limited opportunity Behaviour:Desire +/ Competition Trap:Increased risk taking “Let’s get up before that other team beat us” “I haven’t seen good snow on that for 15 years”

7. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Heuristic Trap - Familiarity Cue:Familiar setting Behaviour: Same as last time Trap: Conditions change “I can’t see it but I know there’s nothing above us” “You can always get to the easy track down here.... ”

8. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Heuristic Trap – Social Proof Cue: Other people’s behaviour Behaviour: Imitation Trap: They make a bad decision “If they’re going up there it must be okay” “I bet the other team are getting to a peak”

9. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s How snow “changes“ (made simple) The “Melt + freeze” process is easy to understand Fresh snow “settles” even if it doesn’t melt – How? Why? Process often called “destructive metamorphism” or: Equi-temperature Metamorphism

10. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Fresh snow to Firn snow Equi = “same” Temperature Metamorphism = “change” Temperature <0°C Snow never “melts” Firn snow is “real” nevé Equi-temperature Metamorphism

11. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Equi-temperature Metamorphism Reproduced from “Winter Skills” by permission from MLTUK (“Same Temperature Change”)

12. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Equi-temperature Metamorphism Reproduced from “Winter Skills” by permission from MLTUK

13. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Often called “destructive metamorphism”

14. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Different snow types Fresh snow rounds easily (Stellar dendrite) Graupel rounds more slowly (rimed snowflakes) Depth hoar struggles to round (facets)

15. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Surface Hoar Some crystals grow: On the surface (surface hoar) In the Snow pack (depth hoar) In prolonged cold conditions Not all snow falls from the sky

16. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Surface Hoar

17. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Surface Hoar Like dew after an Autumnal frost Moisture in the air condenses on the cold surface Slowly grow into pure crystals Only forms in prolonged clear and cold weather (with no wind) M o i s t a i r

18. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s

19. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Surface Hoar Forms (or “grows”) slowly on the surface in cold clear conditions Only becomes a problem if and when it is buried by another layer May have been destroyed by the sun on sunny slopes May have become a substantial layer on shady slopes

20. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Photo Case Study Crown wall

21. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Photo Case Study

22. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Photo Case Study

23. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Photo Case Study Buried surface hoar (glinting crystals) Super smooth sliding surface

24. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Snow profile

25. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Depth Hoar Similar process to surface hoar Moist air from ground or wet snow pack Meets cold air from above Crystal growth within the snow pack

26. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Temperature Gradient Metamorphosis

27. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Detached Crust How did this crust form? Why is it not “stuck” to the snow beneath?

28. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Depth Hoar case study How come this was safe to decend Why did it release just here?

29. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Depth Hoar case study Nothing easily visible in profile

30. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Deep snow pack Homogenous Less gradient Shallow snow pack Depth Hoar layer Steeper gradient Depth Hoar case study

31. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Further reading Jill Fredston & Doug Fesler Alaska Mtn Safety Center Bob Barton & Blythe Wright Scottish Mountaineering Trust David McClung & Peter Schaerer The Mountaineers

32. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s A Few Facts The colder it is……. The longer its cold for……….. Depth of snow

33. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s So What? Hidden layers Thin layers Prolonged cold – worse not better

34. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s How to predict Quiz?

35. M o u n t a i n T r a i n i n g T r u s t A v a l a n c h e A w a r e n e s s Snow profiles