1. © T. M. Whitmore TODAY Migration  Remittances (a consequence of international emigration from LA) Rural to rural migration within LA Rural to urban migration within LA

2. © T. M. Whitmore LAST TIME The urban dual economy Migration  International within Latin America  International to and from Latin America

3. Source: © IADB Remittances: The Human Face of Globalization

4. © T. M. Whitmore Remittances They are monies sent by workers in the US to their Latin American (and other) homes. About 10 million Latin American immigrants (of the 16.5 m total) living in the United States  Send about $50 billion to their families on a yearly basis.  Each monthly transaction averages approximately $240 LA & C is now the fastest growing and highest volume remittance market in the world (> 150 million transfers annually to over 20 million recipients)

5. © T. M. Whitmore Remittance Origins in US Top US sending states = CA, NY, FL, IL, NJ (all over $1 billion annually) Top US sending states N C over $800 million annually

6. © T. M. Whitmore How is money sent? Most send remesasto to their families through international money transfer companies.  These are costly: fees can run to 10% or more Less than 50% of Latin Americans have bank accounts here or in home countries  Thus some use professional viajeros (travelers) Agencies are now competing  IADB working to reduce fees and bottlenecks  In Durham, NC the Latino Community Credit Union charges from $6-10

7. © T. M. Whitmore Remittance destinations in LA Over $1 billion annually = Over $1 billion annually  Mexico (> 18% of pop receive remittance $)> 18% of pop receive remittance $  Dominican Republic ($300/capita/yr)  El Salvador ( 28% receive $)  Guatemala (> 24% receive $)  Jamaica  Cuba  Ecuador (> 10% receive $)  Columbia  Brazil

8. © T. M. Whitmore Remittances to LA & C Exceed the combined flows of all Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and net Official Development Assistance (ODA) Flows substantially exceed tourism income to each country & almost always exceed the largest export.

9. © T. M. Whitmore Scale of remittance flows Remittances to Mexico  Greater than the country's total tourism income  Greater than 2/3 of the value of petroleum exports  About equal to 180% of the country's agricultural exports. The earnings of Salvadorans residing in the United States  Greater than entire GDP of the country.

10. © T. M. Whitmore Spending Remittances Vast majority spent on household expenses Vast  Investments in real estate (houses) increasinghouses  Also investments in small business venturessmall business

11. © T. M. Whitmore Consequences & Issues Social consequences to the Latin American migrant workers’ families Social consequences  About 1/3 are undocumented thus  Visits home are few  Wages and working conditions may be poor  Families are divided Impacts in Latin America  Is this development or dependency?  How many participate, does it increase or decrease equity?

12. Source: © IADB $1.2 b $13.2 b $5.2 b $3.7 b 2006 estimates-note big increases

13. Sources: IADB, World Bank ~$22 b (2006 est) ~$3 b (2006 est) ~$3.3 b (2006 est) ~$3.5 b (2006 est) ~$2.8 b (2006 est) ~$2.7 b (2006 est)

14. Source: © IADB

16. © Thomas Whitmore

17. Return migrant (remittance funded) housing in Ecuador © Brad Jokish

18. © Thomas Whitmore

20. Quiroga, Mexico

21. © Thomas Whitmore

23. © T. M. Whitmore Permanent: rural => rural From densely settled highlands to sparsely settled lowlands  Andean to Amazonia Andean  Andean to coast  Central American Central From densely settled NE Brazil and S cities to Amazonia From Also temporary r -> r circulation

25. Amazonia

28. © T. M. Whitmore 4th type: rural => urban migration What is it?  rural to urban migration => permanent change of residence Why migrate?  “Push” and “Pull” forces  Economic welfare  Social welfare  Other factors

29. © T. M. Whitmore Why migrate? Economic (pushes & pulls)  Lack of land  Few non-farm opportunities  Little upward mobility  Development => fewer rural jobs & jobs with less dignity  New jobs have less autonomy  Strategy of family income diversification

30. © T. M. Whitmore Why migrate II? Social (pushes & pulls)  Education  Health care access

31. © T. M. Whitmore Why migrate III? Other (pushes & pulls)  Environmental  Violence  Individual factors

32. © T. M. Whitmore Who migrates? Age Gender Marital status Education level Personal Ethnicity

33. © T. M. Whitmore How do migrants move? Migration patterns  Role of information  Role of social networks  Role of distance