1. Chem 131 Final Exam Review: Roadmap 1.Learning Objectives 2.Functional Groups 3.Nomenclature 4.Organic Reactions 5.Drawing Molecules 6.Isomers 7.Chirality 8.Acetals & Hemiacetals 9.Carboxylic Acid acid/base chemistry 10.Alkaloids 11.Types of Lipids 12.Carbohydrates: chirality & cyclic forms 13.Amino Acids & Proteins 14.Nucleotides & Nucleic Acids 15.Protein synthesis 16.Coenzymes 17.Citric Acid Cycle 18.Metabolism Overview 19.Glycolysis

2. Learning Objectives Chapter 11-15  Difference between organic and inorganic molecules  Name characteristic features of organic compounds  Draw organic compounds, including skeletal structures  Identify common bond types, angles, and molecule shapes  Name functional groups  Understand polarity and its effect on solubility and boiling point  Explain the difference between fat and water soluble vitamins  Describe alkane characteristics  Draw alkanes as full, condensed, and skeletal structures  Bond angle around alkane carbons  Draw constitutional isomers and ID longest carbon chain  ID 1 °, 2 °, 3°, 4° carbons  Name simple alkanes and cycloalkanes  Predict products of combustion & balance reaction equations  Identify unsaturated hydrocarbons: alkenes, alkynes, aromatic compounds  Alkene, Alkyne, Aromatic nomenclature  Stereoisomers  Addition Reactions  Polymers  Substitution Reactions  Name organic compounds with carbon-heteroatom single bonds (oxygen, halogens, sulfur)  Identify 1°, 2°, 3° alcohols and alkyl halides  Predict the products or reactants for following reactions:  Alcohol dehydration  Alcohol oxidation  Sulfur oxidation  Sulfur reduction  Understand the difference between Chiral and Achiral molecules  Identify chiral centers  Draw the enantiomers & diastereomers of a chiral molecule (using dashes & wedges to show geometry)  Draw fischer projections of chiral molecules  Explain the relevance of chiral centers in Biochemistry

3. Learning Objectives Chapter 16-20  Nomenclature for aldehydes & ketones  Identify structure and describe bonding of aldehydes & ketones  Aldehyde oxidation without alcohol oxidation  Addition reactions at C – O double bond  Hemiacetal & acetal formation  Identify cyclic hemiacetals  Nomenclature for carboxylic acids, esters, & amides  Identify and describe structure of carboxylic acids, esters & amides  Acid-base chemistry of carboxylic acids (think soap!)  Substitution reactions of carboxylic acids  Formation of esters  Formation of amides  Hydrolysis of acyl compounds  Ester hydrolysis  Amide hydrolysis  Structure & formation of polyamides & polyesters  Identify amines and describe bonding & structure (1°, 2°, 3°)  Nomenclature for amines  Amine hydrogen bonding  Alkaloids & Nitrogen heterocycles  Acid-base chemistry of amines  Neurotransmitter amines  Amines and common drugs  Identify basic structure & function of lipids:  Hydrolyzable Lipids:  Waxes  Triglycerols  Phospholipids (and phospholipid bilayers)  Nonhydrolyzable Lipids  Steroids  Fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)  Eicosanoids  Identify carbohydrates  Draw Fischer projections of carbohydrates  Classify as D or L  ID multiple chiral center and draw enantiomers  Draw common monosaccharides: glucose, galactose, fructose  Draw cyclic monosaccharides & identify hemiacetal   &  isomers  draw Haworth projections  Reduction & oxidation of monosaccharides  Describe & draw polysaccharides

4. Learning Objectives Chapter 21-24  The 20 common, naturally occurring Amino Acids  stereochemistry  acid/base chemistry  Peptide Formation  Proteins  Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Quaternary structure  Hydrolysis and denaturation  Enzymes: Catalysis & Inhibition  Nucleosides & Nucleotides: structure  DNA & RNA base pairs: names & structures  Phosphate addition  Nucleic Acids  Formation & primary structure  DNA double helix structure, hydrogen bonding  Replication, Transcription, Translation  RNA  rRNA, mRNA, tRNA  Genetic Code: codon & anticodon  Protein Synthesis: initiation, elongation, termination  Mutations  Recombinant DNA: formation & use  Stages of Metabolism  ATP: structure, hydrolysis, & formation  Coupling reactions  Coenzymes  NAD+ & NADH  FAD & FADH 2  Coenzyme A  Citric Acid Cycle: all 8 steps  Electron Transport Chain  ATP synthesis by Oxidative Phosphorylation  Role in Metabolism of fatty acid oxidation, glycolysis, & Amino acid catabolism  Reactions catalyzed by: kinase, isomerase, dehydrogenase, decarboxylase, carboxylase  Glycolysis: steps & net reaction  Pyruvate conversion to acetyl Coenzyme A

5. Functional Groups Overview 5 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. Alkane Alkene Alkyne Aromatic C − C C = C Hydrocarbon Functional Groups

6. Functional Groups Overview 6 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. Alkyl halides Alcohols Ethers Amines Thiols Single Bond to a Heteroatom Functional Groups

7. Functional Groups Overview 7 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. Aldehydes Carboxylic Acids Esters Ketones Amides Carbonyl Functional Groups

8. Nomenclature Alkanes # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix What, where are the substituents? Example: 2,4- dimethyl How many carbons in longest chain? Example: hex What is the functional group? Example: ane 2,4-dimethylhexane 1 2 3 4 5 6

9. Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parent suffixprefix + + cyclo- + prefix parent suffix What, where are the substituents? Example: 1,3- dimethyl How many carbons in the ring? Example: hex What is the functional group? Example: ane 1,3-dimethylcyclohexane Nomenclature Cycloalkanes # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl 1 2 3 4 6 5

10. Nomenclature Alkenes & Alkynes # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents Second give location of double bond How many carbons in longest chain? How many of the functional group and what is it? Alkene = ene; Alkyne = yne hexa 1 2 3 4 5 6 diene 2,4-dimethyl 1,5- * Note: when we have more then 1 multiple bond the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex

11. Nomenclature Alkenes & Alkynes # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. prefix parent suffix First give location and type of substituents Second give location of double bond How many carbons in longest chain? How many of the functional group and what is it? Alkene = ene; Alkyne = yne pentyne4-methyl 2- parentsuffixprefix ++ 1 23 4 5

12. Nomenclature Cyclo Alkenes & Alkynes # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. prefix parent suffix First give location and type of substituents Second give location of double bond How many carbons in longest chain? How many of the functional group and what is it? Alkene = ene; Alkyne = yne pentene 3-methyl 1- parentsuffixprefix ++ 12 3 4 5 cyclo

13. Nomenclature Aromatics: Benzene Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. prefix parent Give location, number, and type of substituent. You can also replace location & number with o, m, p “Benzene” benzene1,2-dimethyl parentprefix + 1 2 3 4 56 benzeneo-dimethyl o - m - p - Polysubstituted Benzenes: 1.Number to give lowest #s around ring 2.Alphabetize substituents 3.If part of common root name the molecule as a derivative of a monosubstituted benzene with common root at C1.

14. Nomenclature Alcohols 14 # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents Second give location of double bond How many carbons in longest chain? How many of the functional group and what is it? Alcohol = “ol” hexan 1 2 3 4 5 6 ol 2-methyl 4- *Note: after the greek root of the parent use “an”, ie hexan * Second Note: when we have more then 1 multiple bond the parent name has an “a” after the greek root: hexa OH

15. Nomenclature Ethers 15 # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Ether Group Name 1CH3-Methoxy 2CH3CH2-Ethoxy 3CH3CH2CH2-Propoxy 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-Butyoxy 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-Pentoxy 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexoxy Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix Use alkyl substitutant naming roots, but drop the “yl” and use “oxy” for the simplest alkyl group bonded to the ether oxygen. How many carbons in longest chain? Use alkane ending: ane but 1 2 3 4 ane 2-ethoxy O

16. Nomenclature Thiols 16 # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix Give location and type of substituents, then give location of thiol group. How many carbons in longest chain? Hydrocarbon functional group suffix + “thiol” pent 1 2 3 4 5 anethiol 2,4-dimethyl 1- SH

17. Nomenclature Alkyl Halides 17 # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane HalideFull Name Halide Group Name ClChlorineChloro BrBromineBromo FFlourineFlouro IIodineIodo Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix Give location and type of substituents. Replace “ine” in halide name with “o”, ie Chlorine = chloro How many carbons in longest chain? What is the hydrocarbon functional group? If alkane then “ane” suffix hex 1 2 3 4 5 ane 2-chloro 4-methyl Cl 6

18. Nomenclature Aldehydes 18 # Greek Root Straight Chain Alkane Name 1meth methane 2eth ethane 3prop propane 4but butane 5pent pentane 6hex hexane 7hept heptane 8oct octane 9non nonane 10dec decane # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents. How many carbons in longest chain? Aldehyde @ C1, Ketone @ lowest # C What is the functional group? How many? Aldehyde = -al; Ketone = -one petan 1 2 3 4 5 al 2,4-dimethyl * Note: when we have more then 1 aldehyde or ketone the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex O

19. Nomenclature Ketones 19 # CarbonsStructure Alkyl Group Name 1CH3-methyl 2CH3CH2-ethyl 3CH3CH2CH2-propyl 4CH3CH2CH2CH2-butyl 5CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2-pentyl 6CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2-hexyl Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents. Then the location of the ketone How many carbons in longest chain? Aldehyde @ C1, Ketone @ lowest # C What is the functional group? How many? Aldehyde = -al; Ketone = -one hexa 1 2 3 4 5 dione 2,3 - * Note: when we have more then 1 aldehyde or ketone the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex O 6 O Ketone is C1 in cyclic ketones then number to make the first substituent on the smallest C # Common names for ketones: Name both alkyl groups Order alphabetically Add the work ketone

20. Nomenclature Carboxylic Acids 20 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents. How many carbons in longest chain? Carboxylic acid @ C1 What is the functional group? How many? Carboxylic acid: “-oic acid” petan 1 2 3 4 5 oic acid2,4-dimethyl * Note: when we have more then 1 functional group the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex O OH Functional GroupPrefixSuffix alkanealkylane alkenealkenylene alkynealkynylyne alcohol (OH)hydroxyol etheralkoxy halide fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo thiol (SH)mercaptothiol aldehydeformylal ketoneoxoone carboxylic acidcarboxy oic acid carboxylic acid esteroxycarbonyloate amidecarbamoylamide

21. Esters 21 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents. Then give the name of the alky group bonded to the ester functional group How many carbons in longest chain? Carbonyl carbon @ C1 What is the functional group? How many? Ester: “-oate” butan 1 2 3 4 oate methyl * Note: when we have more then 1 functional group the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex O O Functional GroupPrefixSuffix alkanealkylane alkenealkenylene alkynealkynylyne alcohol (OH)hydroxyol etheralkoxy halide fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo thiol (SH)mercaptothiol aldehydeformylal ketoneoxoone carboxylic acidcarboxy oic acid carboxylic acid esteroxycarbonyloate amidecarbamoylamide Nomenclature

22. Amide 22 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix First give location and type of substituents. How many carbons in longest chain? Carbonyl carbon @ C1 What is the functional group? How many? Amide: “-amide” butan 1 2 3 4 amide 3-methyl * Note: when we have more then 1 functional group the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex O N Functional GroupPrefixSuffix alkanealkylane alkenealkenylene alkynealkynylyne alcohol (OH)hydroxyol etheralkoxy halide fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo thiol (SH)mercaptothiol aldehydeformylal ketoneoxoone carboxylic acidcarboxy oic acid carboxylic acid esteroxycarbonyloate amidecarbamoylamide H H

23. Amide 23 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix Use “N” to indicate naming amide R groups How many carbons in longest chain? Carbonyl carbon @ C1 What is the functional group? How many? Amide: “-amide” butan 1 2 3 4 amideNN-dimethyl * Note: when we have more then 1 functional group the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex O N Functional GroupPrefixSuffix alkanealkylane alkenealkenylene alkynealkynylyne alcohol (OH)hydroxyol etheralkoxy halide fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo thiol (SH)mercaptothiol aldehydeformylal ketoneoxoone carboxylic acidcarboxy oic acid carboxylic acid esteroxycarbonyloate amidecarbamoylamide Nomenclature

24. Amines 24 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. parentsuffixprefix ++ parent suffix Give location and type of substituents. Indicate naming the amine R groups with “N” How many carbons in longest chain? Amine @ C1 What is the functional group? How many? Amine = “amine” butan 2 4 amine N,N-dimethyl * Note: when we have more then 1 functional group the parent name has an “a” added on: hexa instead of hex N Functional GroupPrefixSuffix alkanealkylane alkenealkenylene alkynealkynylyne alcohol (OH)hydroxyol etheralkoxy halide fluoro, chloro, bromo, iodo thiol (SH)mercaptothiol aldehydeformylal ketoneoxoone carboxylic acidcarboxy oic acid carboxylic acid esteroxycarbonyloate amidecarbamoylamide amineaminoamine 1 3

25. Nomenclature Amines

26. Reactions Summary H2OH2O H 2 SO 4 H2OH2O H 2 O/H 2 SO 4 H2OH2O 2 eq ROH (alcohol) H 2 SO 4 H2OH2O ROH (alcohol) H 2 SO 4 Hydration Dehydration Hydrolysis of Acetals & Hemiacetals Acetal & Hemiacetal formation Esterification H OH H OR RO OR RO Δ HNR 2 H 2 O/H 2 SO 4 H 2 O/NaOH Amide Formation Ester/Amide Hydrolysis Ester/Amide Hydrolysis NR 2 OR NR 2 O - Na +

27. Reactions Summary Nucleophile H 2 SO 4 HX (X = Br or Cl) Nucleophilic Substitution Hydrohalogenation H X Nuc [O] NH 4 OH Ag 2 O [O] [H] Pd, Pt, or Rh catalyst [H] or H 2 Hydrogenation Reduction Oxidation Selective Oxidation Oxidation 2 RSHRS SR 2 RSH

28. Reactions Summary X2X2 HNO 3 H 2 SO 4 SO 3 Pd, Pt, or Rh catalyst [H] or H 2 FeX 3 (X = Cl or Br) H 2 SO 4 Sulfonation Nitration Chlorination or Bromination Reduction Cl NO 2 SO 3 H NH 3 NH 4 NH 3 HClNaOH Amine Acid/Base

29. CCCCCCCC HHHHHHHH HHHHHHHH H CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 =CH 2.. Drawing Chemical Structures Lewis Dot Structures Structural Formula or Complete Structure Structural Formula or Complete Structure with Geometry Indicated Condensed Structure Skeletal Structure H H H C C C C H H H H H

30. Alkanes Longest Carbon Chain 30 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 2 3 4 5 Longest Carbon Chain

31. Alkanes 1°, 2°, 3°, 4° 31 Smith. General Organic & Biolocial Chemistry 2nd Ed. C H H HR C R H HR C R H RR C R R RR 1° 2° 3° 4° R = a Carbon atom

32. Alcohols & Alkyl Halides 1°, 2°, 3°

33. Structure Amines

34. Structure Amides Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 34

35. Stereoisomers Spatial Isomers Constitutional Isomers Structural Isomers ISOMERS DiastereomersEnantiomers Cis/Trans Isomers Conformational Isomers R R R R Rotation around C-C single bonds Different spatial arrangement of atoms but with the same connectivity Different connectivity between atoms Same chemical formula Mirror images of a chiral molecule that are not superimposable All stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another

36. A Fischer Projection takes a 3D tetrahedral shape, and re-draws it: Chiral Molecules Fischer Projections Smith. General Organic & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 36

37. Stereo- isomers Stereo- isomers Multiple Chiral Centers chemwiki.ucdavis.edu 37

38. Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 38 Ketones & Aldehydes Acetal Formation

39. Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 39 Ketones & Aldehydes Acetal Hydrolysis

40. Carboxylic Acids Acid/Base Chemistry

41. Amines Alkaloids Cocaine Alkaloids are compounds that contain an amine.

42. Biochemistry Neurotransmitters When norepinephrine levels increase, a person feels elated, and then manic if levels go too high. Dopamine affects the brain processes that control movement, emotions, and pleasure Serotonin is important in mood, sleep, perception, and temperature regulation. Acetylcholine is a quaternary ammonium ion that serves as a neurotransmitter between neurons and muscle cells

43. Lipids Categories of Lipids

44. Lipids Categories of Lipids

45. Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 45 generally have 3 to 6 C atoms in a chain with an aldehyde or ketone ending and many –OH groups. Aldehyde monosaccharides are aldoses ketone monosaccharides are ketoses.

46. Carbohydrates D vs L Monosaccharides Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 46 The configuration of the chirality center farthest from the carbonyl group determines whether a monosaccharide is D or L. All naturally occurring sugars are D sugars.

47. Carbohydrates Cyclic Monosaccharides Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 47 The C atom that is part of the hemiacetal is a new chirality center, called the anomer carbon. Haworth projections

48. Carbohydrates Disaccharides Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 48

49. Amino Acids Basic Structure Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 49

50. Peptides Amide Bond Formation Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 50

51. Proteins 1°, 2°, 3°, 4° Structure Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 51

52. Enzymes Function http://leavingbio.net/enzymes.htm 52

53. Enzymes Inhibition 53 http://o.quizlet.com/i/WRLW8kdWLDOY1YZbEdKgyA_m.jpg

54. Nucleotides Summary of Structure 54

55. Nucleic Acids Definition Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 55 Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleotides joined by phosphodiester linkages.

56. DNA Base Pairs Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 56 The bases always line up so that a pyrimidine derivative can hydrogen bond to a purine derivative on the other strand.

57. RNA Translation & Protein Synthesis Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 57

58. Mutations Types Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 58

59. ADP/ATP Hydrolysis & Phosphorylation 59 This forms ADP and hydrogen phosphate (HPO 4 2− ), releasing 7.3 kcal/mol of energy. 59 Phosphorylation is the reverse reaction, where a phosphate group is added to ADP, forming ATP requiring 7.3 kcal/mol of energy.

60. Coenzymes

61. Citric Acid Cycle Overview 61 Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed.

62. Electron Transport Definition Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 62 The electron transport chain is a multistep process using 4 enzyme complexes (I, II, III and IV) located along the mitochondrial inner membrane.

63. 63 Steps Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. Metabolism

64. Biochemical Rxns Common Enzymes Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 64

65. Glycolysis Energy Investment & Generation 65 Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed.

66. Glycolysis Overall Reaction 66 Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed. 2 ATPs are used in phase one of glycolysis, and 4 ATPs are made in phase two of glycolysis. The net result is the synthesis of 2 ATPs from glycolysis The 2 NADHs formed are made in the cytoplasm and must be transported to the mitochondria to join the electron transport chain and make ATP.

67. Pyruvate can be converted into three possible products depending on the conditions and the organism. under aerobic conditions under anaerobic conditions in fermentation by microorganisms Glycolysis Pyruvate 67 Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed.

68. Glycolysis ATP Yield 68 Smith, Janice Gorzynski. General, Organic, & Biological Chemistry 2nd Ed.