2. Investigating Atoms and Atomic Theory Students should be able to: Students should be able to: Describe the particle theory of matter. PS.2a Describe the particle theory of matter. PS.2a Use the Bohr model to differentiate among the three basic particles in the atom (proton, neutron, and electron) and their charges, relative masses, and locations. PS.3 Use the Bohr model to differentiate among the three basic particles in the atom (proton, neutron, and electron) and their charges, relative masses, and locations. PS.3 Compare the Bohr atomic model to the electron cloud model with respect to their ability to represent accurately the structure of the atom.PS.3 Compare the Bohr atomic model to the electron cloud model with respect to their ability to represent accurately the structure of the atom.PS.3

3. Atomos: Not to Be Cut The History of Atomic Theory

4. Atomic Models This model of the atom may look familiar to you. This is the Bohr model. In this model, the nucleus is orbited by electrons, which are in different energy levels. This model of the atom may look familiar to you. This is the Bohr model. In this model, the nucleus is orbited by electrons, which are in different energy levels. A model uses familiar ideas to explain unfamiliar facts observed in nature. A model uses familiar ideas to explain unfamiliar facts observed in nature. A model can be changed as new information is collected. A model can be changed as new information is collected.

5. The atomic model has changed throughout the centuries, starting in 400 BC, when it looked like a billiard ball → The atomic model has changed throughout the centuries, starting in 400 BC, when it looked like a billiard ball →

6. Who are these men? In this lesson, we’ll learn about the men whose quests for knowledge about the fundamental nature of the universe helped define our views.

7. Democritus This is the Greek philosopher Democritus who began the search for a description of matter more than 2400 years ago. This is the Greek philosopher Democritus who began the search for a description of matter more than 2400 years ago. He asked: Could matter be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, or was there a limit to the number of times a piece of matter could be divided? He asked: Could matter be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, or was there a limit to the number of times a piece of matter could be divided? 400 BC

8. Atomos His theory: Matter could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, eventually the smallest possible piece would be obtained. His theory: Matter could not be divided into smaller and smaller pieces forever, eventually the smallest possible piece would be obtained. This piece would be indivisible. This piece would be indivisible. He named the smallest piece of matter “atomos,” meaning “not to be cut.” He named the smallest piece of matter “atomos,” meaning “not to be cut.”

9. Atomos  To Democritus, atoms were small, hard particles that were all made of the same material but were different shapes and sizes.  Atoms were infinite in number, always moving and capable of joining together.

10. This theory was ignored and forgotten for more than 2000 years! This theory was ignored and forgotten for more than 2000 years!

11. Why? The eminent philosophers of the time, Aristotle and Plato, had a more respected, (and ultimately wrong) theory. The eminent philosophers of the time, Aristotle and Plato, had a more respected, (and ultimately wrong) theory. Aristotle and Plato favored the earth, fire, air and water approach to the nature of matter. Their ideas held sway because of their eminence as philosophers. The atomos idea was buried for approximately 2000 years.

12. The Early History of Chemistry 4 Before 16th Century Alchemy: Attempts (scientific or otherwise) to change cheap metals into gold Alchemy: Attempts (scientific or otherwise) to change cheap metals into gold 4 17th Century Robert Boyle: First “chemist” to perform quantitative experiments Robert Boyle: First “chemist” to perform quantitative experiments 4 18th Century George Stahl: Phlogiston flows out of a burning material. George Stahl: Phlogiston flows out of a burning material. Joseph Priestley: Discovers oxygen gas, “dephlogisticated air.” Joseph Priestley: Discovers oxygen gas, “dephlogisticated air.”

13. The Early History of Chemistry 18 th Century, continued: Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) The Father of Modern Chemistry, suggested the law of conservation of mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) The Father of Modern Chemistry, suggested the law of conservation of mass: Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

14. Dalton’s Model In the early 1800s, the English Chemist John Dalton performed a number of experiments that eventually led to the acceptance of the idea of atoms. In the early 1800s, the English Chemist John Dalton performed a number of experiments that eventually led to the acceptance of the idea of atoms.

15. Other Fundamental Chemical Laws 4 A given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass. 4 Carbon tetrachloride is always 1 atom carbon per 4 atoms chlorine. Law of Definite Proportion (Joseph Proust)

16. Other Fundamental Chemical Laws 4 When two elements form a series of compounds, the ratios of the masses of the second element that combine with 1 gram of the first element can always be reduced to small whole numbers. 4 The ratio of the masses of oxygen in H 2 O and H 2 O 2 will be a small whole number (“2”). 4 http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/4974/5093961/emedia/ch02/LawOfMultipleProporti ons.html http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/4974/5093961/emedia/ch02/LawOfMultipleProporti ons.html http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/4974/5093961/emedia/ch02/LawOfMultipleProporti ons.html Law of Multiple Proportions (John Dalton)

17. Dalton’s Theory He deduced that all elements are composed of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible particles. He deduced that all elements are composed of atoms. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible particles. Atoms of the same element are exactly alike. Atoms of the same element are exactly alike. Atoms of different elements are different. Atoms of different elements are different. Compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements. Compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements.

18. . This theory became one of the foundations of modern chemistry. This theory became one of the foundations of modern chemistry.

19. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the first hint that an atom is made of even smaller particles. In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the first hint that an atom is made of even smaller particles.

20. Thomson Model He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the “Plum Pudding” model. He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the “Plum Pudding” model. Atoms were made from a positively charged substance with negatively charged electrons scattered about, like raisins in a pudding. Atoms were made from a positively charged substance with negatively charged electrons scattered about, like raisins in a pudding.

21. Thomson Model Thomson studied the passage of an electric current through a gas. Thomson studied the passage of an electric current through a gas. As the current passed through the gas, it gave off rays of negatively charged particles. As the current passed through the gas, it gave off rays of negatively charged particles.

22. Thomson Model This surprised Thomson, because the atoms of the gas were uncharged. Where had the negative charges come from? This surprised Thomson, because the atoms of the gas were uncharged. Where had the negative charges come from? Where did they come from?

23. Thomson concluded that the negative charges came from within the atom. A particle smaller than an atom had to exist. The atom was divisible! Thomson called the negatively charged “corpuscles,” today known as electrons. Since the gas was known to be neutral, having no charge, he reasoned that there must be positively charged particles in the atom. But he could never find them.

24. Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment In 1908, the English physicist Ernest Rutherford was hard at work on an experiment that seemed to have little to do with unraveling the mysteries of the atomic structure. In 1908, the English physicist Ernest Rutherford was hard at work on an experiment that seemed to have little to do with unraveling the mysteries of the atomic structure.

25. Rutherford’s experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny positively charged particles at a thin sheet of gold foil (2000 atoms thick) Rutherford’s experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny positively charged particles at a thin sheet of gold foil (2000 atoms thick)

26. Most of the positively charged “bullets” passed right through the gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil without changing course at all. Most of the positively charged “bullets” passed right through the gold atoms in the sheet of gold foil without changing course at all. Some of the positively charged “bullets,” however, did bounce away from the gold sheet as if they had hit something solid. He knew that positive charges repel positive charges. Some of the positively charged “bullets,” however, did bounce away from the gold sheet as if they had hit something solid. He knew that positive charges repel positive charges.

28. http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html http://chemmovies.unl.edu/ChemAnime/R UTHERFD/RUTHERFD.html

29. This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were mostly open space. Atoms were not a pudding filled with a positively charged material. This could only mean that the gold atoms in the sheet were mostly open space. Atoms were not a pudding filled with a positively charged material. Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, dense, positively charged center that repelled his positively charged “bullets.” Rutherford concluded that an atom had a small, dense, positively charged center that repelled his positively charged “bullets.” He called the center of the atom the “nucleus” He called the center of the atom the “nucleus” The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole. The nucleus is tiny compared to the atom as a whole.

30. Rutherford Rutherford reasoned that all of an atom’s positively charged particles were contained in the nucleus. The negatively charged particles were scattered outside the nucleus around the atom’s edge. Rutherford reasoned that all of an atom’s positively charged particles were contained in the nucleus. The negatively charged particles were scattered outside the nucleus around the atom’s edge.

31. Bohr Model In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement. In his model, he placed each electron in a specific energy level. In 1913, the Danish scientist Niels Bohr proposed an improvement. In his model, he placed each electron in a specific energy level.

32. Bohr Model According to Bohr’s atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from the nucleus. According to Bohr’s atomic model, electrons move in definite orbits around the nucleus, much like planets circle the sun. These orbits, or energy levels, are located at certain distances from the nucleus.

33. Wave Model

34. The Wave Model Today’s atomic model is based on the principles of wave mechanics. Today’s atomic model is based on the principles of wave mechanics. According to the theory of wave mechanics, electrons do not move about an atom in a definite path, like the planets around the sun. According to the theory of wave mechanics, electrons do not move about an atom in a definite path, like the planets around the sun.

35. The Wave Model In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact location of an electron. The probable location of an electron is based on how much energy the electron has. In fact, it is impossible to determine the exact location of an electron. The probable location of an electron is based on how much energy the electron has. According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a large region in which there are enough electrons to make an atom neutral. According to the modern atomic model, at atom has a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a large region in which there are enough electrons to make an atom neutral.

36. Electron Cloud: A space in which electrons are likely to be found. A space in which electrons are likely to be found. Electrons whirl about the nucleus billions of times in one second Electrons whirl about the nucleus billions of times in one second They are not moving around in random patterns. They are not moving around in random patterns. Location of electrons depends upon how much energy the electron has. Location of electrons depends upon how much energy the electron has.

37. Electron Cloud: Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain area in the cloud. Depending on their energy they are locked into a certain area in the cloud. Electrons with the lowest energy are found in the energy level closest to the nucleus Electrons with the lowest energy are found in the energy level closest to the nucleus Electrons with the highest energy are found in the outermost energy levels, farther from the nucleus. Electrons with the highest energy are found in the outermost energy levels, farther from the nucleus.

38. IndivisibleElectronNucleusOrbit Electron Cloud Democritus X Dalton X Thomson X Rutherford X X Bohr X X X Wave X X X

39. The Modern View of Atomic Structure l electrons l protons: found in the nucleus, they have a positive charge equal in magnitude to the electron’s negative charge. l neutrons: found in the nucleus, virtually same mass as a proton but no charge. The atom contains:

40. The Mass and Change of the Electron, Proton, and Neutron

41. Particles and Charge Symbol Mass Charge Location Symbol Mass Charge Location Proton (p + ) 1amu +1 nucleus Proton (p + ) 1amu +1 nucleus Neutron (n o ) 1amu 0 nucleus Neutron (n o ) 1amu 0 nucleus Electron (e - ) 1/1840 -1 electron Electron (e - ) 1/1840 -1 electroncloud

42. The Chemists’ Shorthand: Atomic Symbols K  Element Symbol 39 19 Mass number  Atomic number  p + + n o = mass number Atomic number = #p + or #e - in a neutral atom Mass number – atomic number = #n o

43. Atomic Masses Elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes Elements occur in nature as mixtures of isotopes Atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes for an element. Atomic mass is the weighted average of all isotopes for an element. Carbon =98.89% 12 C Carbon =98.89% 12 C 1.11% 13 C <0.01% 14 C Carbon atomic mass = 12.01 amu Carbon atomic mass = 12.01 amu

44. MASS NUMBER AND AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS Atomic masses are based on CARBON. The atomic mass unit is 1/12 of the mass of one carbon atom. How do we calculate average atomic mass? Multiply the % times the mass for each isotope, then add them together.

45. Average atomic mass Calculate the average mass of isotopes of neptunium with: Calculate the average mass of isotopes of neptunium with: 50.0% at 238.05 amu 29.4% at 235.1 amu 20.6% at 237.98 amu (.500 x 238.05) + (.294 x 235.1) + (.206 x 237.98) = 237.17amu

46. Another problem: Calculate the average atomic mass of calcium with these isotopes: 28.4% at 40.06 amu 34.1% at 41.02 amu 22.8% at 40.89 amu 14.7% at 39.98 amu (.284x40.06)+(.341x41.02)+(.228x40.89)+(.147x39.98)40.56

47. Atomic Mass Atomic mass is the weighted average of all of the known isotopes of an element, so will always be shown as a decimal number. Atomic mass is the weighted average of all of the known isotopes of an element, so will always be shown as a decimal number.

48. Chemical Bonds The forces that hold atoms together in compounds. The forces that hold atoms together in compounds. Covalent bonds result from atoms sharing electrons. Covalent bonds result from atoms sharing electrons. Molecule: a collection of covalently-bonded atoms. Molecule: a collection of covalently-bonded atoms. Includes all covalent compounds and diatomic molecules. Includes all covalent compounds and diatomic molecules.

49. The Chemists’ Shorthand: Formulas Chemical Formula: Chemical Formula: Symbols = types of atoms Symbols = types of atoms Subscripts = relative numbers of atoms Subscripts = relative numbers of atoms CO 2 Structural Formula: Structural Formula: Individual bonds are shown by lines. Individual bonds are shown by lines. O=C=OO=C=OO=C=OO=C=O

50. Chemical Bonds Ionic Bonding: Force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. Smallest particle is formula unit. Cation: A positive ion Cation: A positive ion Mg 2+, NH 4 + Anion: A negative ion Anion: A negative ion Cl , SO 4 2 

51. Periodic Table Elements classified by:  properties  properties  atomic number  atomic number Groups (vertical column) 1A = alkali metals 1A = alkali metals 2A = alkaline earth metals 2A = alkaline earth metals 7A = halogens 7A = halogens 8A = noble gases 8A = noble gases Periods (horizontal row)

52. Stupendous Seven

53. Periodic Table Antoine Lavoisier, 1790’s made first list of known elements, 23 total. By 1870, there were 70! John Newlands, 1864—Law of Octaves: When element were placed in order of increasing atomic mass, every 8 th element repeated properties. Lothar Meyer, 1869—Periodic table based on physical characteristics only and increasing atomic mass. Dmitri Mendeleev, 1869—Periodic Dmitri Mendeleev, 1869—Periodic table based on physical and chemical characteristics and increasing atomic mass. Predicted new elements. Henry Moseley, 1913—Modern periodic law based on subatomic particles: There is a periodic repetition of chemical and physical properties of the elements when they are arranged by increasing atomic number (protons).

54. Periodic Trends

55. Groups Periods Groups Periods

56. Periodic Trends