1. Motivation Concepts Session 10

2. Motivation
Motivation is defined as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards attaining a goal.
Motivation is a result of interaction of individual and situation.

3. Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation being driven by positive feelings associated with doing well on a task or job
Extrinsic Motivation motivation caused by the desire to attain specific outcomes

4. Motivation Theories Early Theories (Content Theories)
Hierarchy of Needs Theory – Abraham Maslow
ERG Theory – Clayton Alderfer
Theory X and Theory Y – Douglas McGregor
Two Factor Theory – Frederick Herzberg
Theory of Needs - David McClelland

5. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Self-Actualization
The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

6. Contd
Lower-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.
Higher-Order Needs Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
Source: Motivation and Personality , 2nd ed,, by A.H. Maslow, Reprinted by permission of Prentice Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

7. ERG Theory (Alderfer)
Core Needs –
Existence
Relatedness
Growth

8. Theory X and Theory Y (McGregor)
Theory X (Negative in nature)
Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid responsibility, and must be directed and coerced to perform.
Theory Y (Positive in nature)
Assumes that employees like work, seek responsibility, are capable of making decisions, and exercise self-direction and self-control when committed to a goal.

9. Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
Two-Factor (Motivation-Hygiene) Theory
Intrinsic factors (Motivators) are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors (Hygiene factors) are associated with job dissatisfaction.
Motivators –
Promotional opportunities, personal growth, recognition, responsibility and achievement
Hygiene Factors
Quality of supervision, pay, physical working conditions, job security, Company policy and administration, supervision

10. Contrasting Views of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction

11. Contd Procedure is limited by methodology.
Criticism –
Procedure is limited by methodology.
The reliability of methodology is questioned.
No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
Methodology doesn’t show relationship between satisfaction and productivity. It looked only at satisfaction.

12. David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
Need for Affiliation
The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.
Need for Power
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
nAch
nPow
nAff

13. Matching High Achievers and Jobs

14. Contemporary Theories (Process Theories)
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Goal Setting Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Self Efficacy Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory

15. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
It states that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.
Reasons –
An individual experiences a loss of control
Natural inclination to work towards the task
Individual’s pay should be made noncontingent on performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation.

16. Contd
Extrinsic rewards that are verbal (receiving praise from a supervisor) or tangible (money) can have different effects on intrinsic motivation.
Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation while tangible rewards undermine it.
Self – Concordance –
Reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.

17. Goals
Goal what an individual is trying to accomplish

18. Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)
Intentions to work toward a goal is a major source of work motivation
Specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance.
Factors influencing the goals–performance relationship:
Goal commitment, adequate self-efficacy, task characteristics, and national culture

19. Guidelines for Writing “SMART” Goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Results oriented
Time bound

20. Insights from Goal Setting Research
Difficult goals lead to higher performance
Specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance for simple rather than complex tasks
Feedback enhances the effect of specific, difficult goals
Participative goals, assigned goals, and self-set goals are equally effective
Goal commitment and monetary incentives affect goal-setting outcomes

21. Management by Objectives (MBO)
Implementing Goal Setting –
Management by Objectives (MBO) –
Participatively setting the goals that are tangible, verifiable and measureable.
It uses bottom up and top down approach.
Goal Specificity
Participation in decision making
An explicit time period
Performance feedback

22. Self Efficacy Theory (Social Cognitive/ Social Learning)
Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
Four ways to increase self efficacy – (Bandura)
Enactive mastery
Vicarious modeling
Verbal persuasion
Arousal
Application –
Training programs (Use Enactive Mastery)
Verbal Persuasion (Pygmalion / Galatea effect)
Intelligence and Personality can increase Self Efficacy.

23. Joint Effects of Goals and Self Efficacy on Performance
Individual has confidence that given level of performance will be attained (self efficacy)
Individual has higher level of job or task performance
Manager sets difficult, specific goal for job or task
Individual sets higher personal (self set) goal for their performance

24. Reinforcement Theory
The assumption that behavior is a function of its consequences (Behaviorist View)
Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.

25. Equity Theory Equity Theory
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities.
Referent Comparisons:
Self-inside
Self-outside
Other-inside
Other-outside

26. Equity Theory (cont’d)

27. Equity Theory (cont’d)
Choices for dealing with inequity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)

28. Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Over rewarded hourly employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.
Over rewarded piece-work employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.
Under rewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
Under rewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees.

29. Model of Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of outcomes
Eg – I got the pay raise I deserved
Procedural Justice
Perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome
Eg – I had input into the process used to give raises and was given an explanation of why I received the raise
Organizational Justice
Overall perception of what is fair
Eg – I think this is a fair place to work
Interactional Justice
Perceived degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect
Eg – When telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice

30. Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory (Victor Vroom)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Expectancy
Valence
Instrumentality

31. Expectancy Theory Relationships
Effort–Performance Relationship
The probability that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
Performance–Reward Relationship
The belief that performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
Rewards–Personal Goals Relationship
The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s goals or needs and the attractiveness of potential rewards for the individual.

32. Contd
If I give a maximum effort, will it be recognized in my performance appraisal?
If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead to organizational rewards?
If I am rewarded, are the rewards ones that I find personally attractive?

33. Global Implications
Maslow’s need hiearchy and Equity theory aligns with US culture.
Asian society, being collectivist, focuses on social view and relationship between an individual and interpersonal standards.
In western society, motivation and behavior occur in a social vacuum.