1. Introduction to Software Testing Chapter 3.1, 3.2 Logic Coverage Paul Ammann & Jeff Offutt www.introsoftwaretesting.com

2. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 2 Ch. 3 : Logic Coverage Four Structures for Modeling Software Graphs Logic Input Space Syntax Use cases Specs Design Source Applied to DNF Specs FSMs Source Input Models Integ Source

3. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 3 Covering Logic Expressions (3.1) Logic expressions show up in many situations Covering logic expressions is required by the US Federal Aviation Administration for safety critical software Logical expressions can come from many sources –Decisions in programs –FSMs and statecharts –Requirements Tests are intended to choose some subset of the total number of truth assignments to the expressions

4. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 4 Logic Predicates and Clauses A predicate is an expression that evaluates to a boolean value Predicates can contain –boolean variables –non-boolean variables that contain >, =, <=, != –boolean function calls Internal structure is created by logical operators –¬ – the negation operator –  – the and operator –  – the or operator –  – the implication operator –  – the exclusive or operator –  – the equivalence operator A clause is a predicate with no logical operators

5. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 5 Examples (a = n*o) Four clauses: –(a < b) – relational expression – f (z) – boolean-valued function – D – boolean variable – (m >= n*o) – relational expression Most predicates have few clauses –It would be nice to quantify that claim! Sources of predicates –Decisions in programs –Guards in finite state machines –Decisions in UML activity graphs –Requirements, both formal and informal –SQL queries

6. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 6 Humans have trouble translating from English to Logic Translating from English “I am interested in SWE 637 and CS 652” course = swe637 OR course = cs652 “If you leave before 6:30 AM, take Braddock to 495, if you leave after 7:00 AM, take Prosperity to 50, then 50 to 495” time 7:00  path = Prosperity Hmm … this is incomplete ! time = 6:30  path = Prosperity

7. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 7 Testing and Covering Predicates (3.2) We use predicates in testing as follows : –Developing a model of the software as one or more predicates –Requiring tests to satisfy some combination of clauses Abbreviations: –P is the set of predicates –p is a single predicate in P –C is the set of clauses in P –C p is the set of clauses in predicate p –c is a single clause in C

8. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 8 Predicate and Clause Coverage The first (and simplest) two criteria require that each predicate and each clause be evaluated to both true and false Predicate Coverage (PC) : For each p in P, TR contains two requirements: p evaluates to true, and p evaluates to false. Clause Coverage (CC) : For each c in C, TR contains two requirements: c evaluates to true, and c evaluates to false. When predicates come from conditions on edges, this is equivalent to edge coverage PC does not evaluate all the clauses, so …

9. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 9 Predicate Coverage Example ((a = n*o) predicate coverage Predicate = true a = 5, b = 10, D = true, m = 1, n = 1, o = 1 = (5 = 1*1) = true  true  TRUE = true Predicate = false a = 10, b = 5, D = false, m = 1, n = 1, o = 1 = (10 = 1*1) = false  false  TRUE = false

10. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 10 Clause Coverage Example ((a = n*o) Clause coverage Two tests (a < b) = true a = 5, b = 10 (a < b) = false a = 10, b = 5 D = true D = false m >= n*o = true m = 1, n = 1, o = 1 m >= n*o = false m = 1, n = 2, o = 2 true cases 1) a = 5, b = 10, D = true, m = 1, n = 1, o = 1 false cases 2) a = 10, b = 5, D = false, m = 1, n = 2, o = 2

11. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 11 Problems with PC and CC PC does not fully exercise all the clauses, especially in the presence of short circuit evaluation CC does not always ensure PC –That is, we can satisfy CC without causing the predicate to be both true and false –This is definitely not what we want ! The simplest solution is to test all combinations …

12. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 12 Combinatorial Coverage CoC requires every possible combination Sometimes called Multiple Condition Coverage Combinatorial Coverage (CoC) : For each p in P, TR has test requirements for the clauses in Cp to evaluate to each possible combination of truth values. a < bDm >= n*o ((a = n*o) 1TTTT 2TTFF 3TFTT 4TFFF 5FTTT 6FTFF 7FFTF 8FFFF

13. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 13 Combinatorial Coverage This is simple, neat, clean, and comprehensive … But quite expensive! 2 N tests, where N is the number of clauses –Impractical for predicates with more than 3 or 4 clauses The literature has lots of suggestions – some confusing The general idea is simple: Test each clause independently from the other clauses Getting the details right is hard What exactly does “independently” mean ? The book presents this idea as “making clauses active” …

14. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 14 Active Clauses Clause coverage has a weakness : The values do not always make a difference Consider the first test for clause coverage, which caused each clause to be true: –(5 = 1*1) Only the first clause counts ! To really test the results of a clause, the clause should be the determining factor in the value of the predicate Determination : A clause c i in predicate p, called the major clause, determines p if and only if the values of the remaining minor clauses c j are such that changing c i changes the value of p This is considered to make the clause active

15. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 15 Determining Predicates Goal : Find tests for each clause when the clause determines the value of the predicate This is formalized in several criteria that have subtle, but very important, differences P = A  B if B = true, p is always true. so if B = false, A determines p. if A = false, B determines p. P = A  B if B = false, p is always false. so if B = true, A determines p. if A = true, B determines p.

16. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 16 p = a  b 1)a = true, b = false 2)a = false, b = false 3)a = false, b = true 4)a = false, b = false Active Clause Coverage This is a form of MCDC, which is required by the FAA for safety critical software Ambiguity : Do the minor clauses have to have the same values when the major clause is true and false? Active Clause Coverage (ACC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci determines p. TR has two requirements for each ci : ci evaluates to true and ci evaluates to false. Duplicate a is major clauseb is major clause

17. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 17 Resolving the Ambiguity This question caused confusion among testers for years Considering this carefully leads to three separate criteria : –Minor clauses do not need to be the same –Minor clauses do need to be the same –Minor clauses force the predicate to become both true and false p = a  (b  c) Major clause : a a = true, b = false, c = true a = false, b = false, c = false c = false Is this allowed ?

18. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 18 General Active Clause Coverage This is complicated ! It is possible to satisfy GACC without satisfying predicate coverage We really want to cause predicates to be both true and false ! General Active Clause Coverage (GACC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci determines p. TR has two requirements for each ci : ci evaluates to true and ci evaluates to false. The values chosen for the minor clauses cj do not need to be the same when ci is true as when ci is false, that is, cj(ci = true) = cj(ci = false) for all cj OR cj(ci = true) != cj(ci = false) for all cj.

19. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 19 Restricted Active Clause Coverage This has been a common interpretation by aviation developers RACC often leads to infeasible test requirements There is no logical reason for such a restriction Restricted Active Clause Coverage (RACC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci determines p. TR has two requirements for each ci: ci evaluates to true and ci evaluates to false. The values chosen for the minor clauses cj must be the same when ci is true as when ci is false, that is, it is required that cj(ci = true) = cj(ci = false) for all cj.

20. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 20 Correlated Active Clause Coverage A more recent interpretation Implicitly allows minor clauses to have different values Explicitly satisfies (subsumes) predicate coverage Correlated Active Clause Coverage (CACC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci determines p. TR has two requirements for each ci: ci evaluates to true and ci evaluates to false. The values chosen for the minor clauses cj must cause p to be true for one value of the major clause ci and false for the other, that is, it is required that p(ci = true) != p(ci = false).

21. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 21 CACC and RACC abc a  (b  c) 1TTTT 2TTFT 3TFTT 5FTTF 6FTFF 7FFTF abc 1TTTT 5FTTF 2TTFT 6FTFF 3TFTT 7FFTF CACC can be satisfied by choosing any of rows 1, 2, 3 AND any of rows 5, 6, 7 – a total of nine pairs RACC can only be satisfied by one of the three pairs above TFTF TFTF TFTF a TTTTTT FFFFFF a major clause

22. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 22 Inactive Clause Coverage The active clause coverage criteria ensure that “major” clauses do affect the predicates Inactive clause coverage takes the opposite approach – major clauses do not affect the predicates Inactive Clause Coverage (ICC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci does not determine p. TR has four requirements for each ci: (1) ci evaluates to true with p true, (2) ci evaluates to false with p true, (3) ci evaluates to true with p false, and (4) ci evaluates to false with p false.

23. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 23 General and Restricted ICC Unlike ACC, the notion of correlation is not relevant –ci does not determine p, so cannot correlate with p Predicate coverage is always guaranteed General Inactive Clause Coverage (GICC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci does not determine p. The values chosen for the minor clauses cj do not need to be the same when ci is true as when ci is false, that is, cj(ci = true) = cj(ci = false) for all cj OR cj(ci = true) != cj(ci = false) for all cj. Restricted Inactive Clause Coverage (RICC) : For each p in P and each major clause ci in Cp, choose minor clauses cj, j != i, so that ci does not determine p. The values chosen for the minor clauses cj must be the same when ci is true as when ci is false, that is, it is required that cj(ci = true) = cj(ci = false) for all cj.

24. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 24 Logic Coverage Criteria Subsumption Clause Coverage CC Predicate Coverage PC Combinatorial Clause Coverage COC Restricted Active Clause Coverage RACC Restricted Inactive Clause Coverage RICC General Active Clause Coverage GACC Correlated Active Clause Coverage CACC General Inactive Clause Coverage GICC

25. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 25 Making Clauses Determine a Predicate Finding values for minor clauses c j is easy for simple predicates But how to find values for more complicated predicates ? Definitional approach: –pc=true is predicate p with every occurrence of c replaced by true –pc=false is predicate p with every occurrence of c replaced by false To find values for the minor clauses, connect p c=true and p c=false with exclusive OR p c = p c=true  p c=false After solving, p c describes exactly the values needed for c to determine p

26. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 26 Examples p = a  b p a = p a=true  p a=false = (true  b) XOR (false  b) = true XOR b = ¬ b p = a  b p a = p a=true  p a=false = (true  b)  (false  b) = b  false = b p = a  (b  c) p a = p a=true  p a=false = (true  (b  c))  (false  (b  c)) = true  (b  c) = ¬ (b  c) = ¬ b  ¬ c “NOT b  NOT c” means either b or c can be false RACC requires the same choice for both values of a, CACC does not

27. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 27 Repeated Variables The definitions in this chapter yield the same tests no matter how the predicate is expressed (a  b)  (c  b) == (a  c)  b (a  b)  (b  c)  (a  c) –Only has 8 possible tests, not 64 Use the simplest form of the predicate, and ignore contradictory truth table assignments

28. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 28 A More Subtle Example p = ( a  b )  ( a  ¬ b) p a = p a=true  p a=false = ((true  b)  (true  ¬ b))  ((false  b)  (false  ¬ b)) = (b  ¬ b)  false = true  false = true a always determines the value of this predicate b never determines the value – b is irrelevant ! p = ( a  b )  ( a  ¬ b) p b = p b=true  p b=false = ((a  true)  (a  ¬ true))  ((a  false)  (a  ¬ false)) = (a  false)  (false  a) = a  a = false

29. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 29 Infeasible Test Requirements Consider the predicate: (a > b  b > c)  c > a (a > b) = true, (b > c) = true, (c > a) = true is infeasible As with graph-based criteria, infeasible test requirements have to be recognized and ignored Recognizing infeasible test requirements is hard, and in general, undecidable Software testing is inexact – engineering, not science

30. Introduction to Software Testing (Ch 3), www.introsoftwaretesting.com © Ammann & Offutt 30 Logic Coverage Summary Predicates are often very simple –PC may be enough –COC is practical Control software often has many complicated predicates, with lots of clauses Question … why don’t complexity metrics count the number of clauses in predicates?