1. Culture , Language and Communication

2. Communication
Definition: The transmission of information from one individual to another.

3. The Ethnography of Communication
Language
+ Paralanguage
+ Kinesics
+ Proxemics
+ Social Expectations
+ Cultural Meanings
=Communication

4. Paralanguage
Definition: The pitch, tone and cadence of speech.

5. Kinesics
Definition: gestures, facial expressions and body language.

6. Phrases Three examples of types of phrases;
1. Noun phrases = a noun and its modifiers
2. Verb phrases = a verb and its modifiers
3. Prepositional phrases = a preposition, it’s object and modifiers

7. Noun Phrases Act as a subject in a sentence
The cute little boy threw John the ball.
boy + the cute little
Act as a direct object in a sentence
ball + the
Act as an indirect object in a sentence
John

8. Verb Phrases Is made up of the verb and its modifiers.
Joan walked quickly and quietly.
walked + quickly and quietly

9. Clauses
Definition:
a group of two or more words which include its own subject and predicate within the expression, but as a whole form only a part of a complete sentence

10. Types of Clauses Independent clauses are simple sentences
Eg. Sarah patted the dog.
Sarah (subject) + patted (verb) + dog (object)
Dependent Clauses cannot stand alone
Eg. When Sarah patted the dog, . . .

11. Concordance Rules (Also known as agreement)
Units within a sentence must match each other
Eg. Number: plural subject noun requires plural person verb

12. Short-Hand Symbols Syntactic Categories
Subject = S, Verb = V, Object = O
NP = Noun Phrase, VP = Verb Phrase,
PP = Prepositional Phrase, etc.
S+V
S+V+O
NP+VP+PP
Etc.

13. Displaying Sentence Structure
Line Analysis
Bracket Analysis
Chinese Box Diagramming
Diagramming
Tree Diagram Analysis
Phrase Marker Structure

14. Line Analysis

15. Bracket Analysis

16. Chinese Box Diagram

17. Compound Sentence

18. Diagramming

19. Tree Diagram Analysis

20. Phrase Marker Analysis (P-marker)

21. Principles and Parameters
Noam Chomsky’s more recent theory about grammar and how children acquire it.
Principles are aspects of grammar that may have multiple parameters allowing variability in how languages address the principle.
Parameters are alternatives ways to deal with a given principle.

22. Examples of Principles and Parameters
Principle: Sentences must have a subject and a predicate. Can the subject be implied?
“Pro drop” parameter options:
You must have a subject present.
You can drop the subject and it will be
understood to be there.
English: I am going to the store . Head required.
Spanish: (Yo) voy a la tienda. Head optional.

23. Examples of Principles and Parameters
Principle: The “head” of a phrase and its complements must be in linear order.
“Head parameter” options:
The head always comes before the complement.
The head always comes after the complement.
English: bought book Japanese: book bought
English: in Japan Japanese: Japan in

24. Chomsky’s Earlier Theory

25. Generative Grammar Assumes two levels of grammatical structure:
1. Deep structure which is universal and underlies all grammars in all languages
2. Surface structure which represents the specific uses of deep structure elements in specific languages.

26. Transformational Grammar
To get from deep structure to surface structure Chomsky proposed a set of rules called TRANSFORMATIONS.
Deep structure Transformations Surface structure
Deletions

27. Chomsky’s Generative Grammar
Generative grammar is based on theidea that all grammatical constructions occur as a result of universal patterns and rules that can be applied to all languages.
All languages DO NOT, according to generative grammar, have unique sets of grammatical rules.

28. Example of a Deletion Rule
The dog played in the yard and the cat played in the yard.
The deletion rule says that you can eliminate redundancies, therefore:
The dog and the cat played in the yard.
(“played in the yard” is deleted)

29. Structural Ambiguity
Occurs when one surface structure can represent two deep structure meanings.
Example:
Flying Planes can be dangerous.
(Surface structure in English)
To fly planes Planes that are flying
Can be dangerous can be dangerous.
(2 deep structure meanings)

30. Understanding the Ambiguity
Planes can be dangerous.
Embedding rule
Planes – planes flying – can be dangerous.
Deletion rule
Planes - flying - can be dangerous.
Transformation rule
Flying planes can be dangerous.
This seems to yield the correct meaning.

31. Understanding the Ambiguity
But there is also a transformational rule that says you can substitute infinitives for participles.
Flying planes can be dangerous.
Transformation rule
To fly planes can be dangerous.
This is where the confusion comes in.