1. English Relative Clauses Subject Relative –The reporter who attacked the senator didn’t check the facts carefully first. Object Relative –The reporter who the senator attacked didn’t check the facts carefully first. Lots of evidence that English speakers find SRs easier (from reading times, ERPs, fMRI, …)

2. Some Possible Reasons Word order typicality –SR has default SVO order in RC reporter attacked senator didn’t … –OR has 2 NPs in a row & then 2 verbs in a row reporter senator attacked didn’t … SR has shorter distance from Head (= Filler) to typical location (= Gap) in sentence for its role –Adds to working memory load & integration difficulty –Linear distance vs Structural distance

3. Filler-Gap Linear Distance Subject Relative –The reporter 1 [who 1 attacked the senator] didn’t … FILLER GAP Object Relative –The reporter 1 [who the senator attacked 1 ] didn’t … FILLER GAP

4. Some Possible Reasons Word order typicality –SR has default SVO order in RC reporter attacked senator didn’t … –OR has 2 NPs in a row & then 2 verbs in a row reporter senator attacked didn’t … SR has shorter distance from Head (= Filler) to typical location (= Gap) in sentence for its role –Adds to working memory load & integration difficulty –Linear distance vs Structural distance When SR modifies subject of sentence (as in examples), Head plays more similar role in both clauses –But, SRs also easier in English when modify main clause Object … Some of these are confounded in any one language, but can be deconfounded by comparing across languages

5. RCs Across Languages English –SVO order, relatively inflexible –Arguments generally can’t be dropped, pronominalized instead –RC postnominal –Relative pronoun (usually) precedes RC, so (usually) no ambiguity about whether is a RC –ORs harder than SRs Japanese & Korean –SOV order, but flexible –Easily recoverable arguments can be dropped –RC prenominal –No relativizer, so temporary ambiguity about whether is a RC Case particles make noun roles clear, but there’s temporary ambiguity about whether they play those roles in the main clause or some kind of embedded clause –Most evidence so far shows ORs harder than SRs, like English (Ishizuka et al., 2003; Miyamoto & Nakamura, 2003; Ueno & Garnsey, 2006; Kwon et al., in press (Korean); but Ishizuka et al., 2006) Mandarin –SVO order, more flexible than English –Easily recoverable arguments can be dropped –RC prenominal –Relativizer follows RC, so temporary ambiguity about whether is a RC –Evidence so far mixed, but more find SRs harder than ORs (opposite English) (Hsiao & Gibson, 2003; Hsu & Chen, 2009; Lin & Garnsey, 2010; Lin, 2010; but Lin & Bever, 2006)

6. SR Modifying Main Clause Object: 新聞 已經 開始 詳細 報導 質詢 議員 的 官員 xinwen yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao zhixun yiyuan de quanyuan news already begin detail report interrogate councilman DE official The news has already begun to report in detail about the official who interrogated the councilman. OR Modifying Main Clause Object: 新聞 已經 開始 詳細 報導 議員 質詢 的 官員 xinwen yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao yiyuan zhixun de quanyuan news already begin detail report councilman interrogate DE official The news has already begun to report in detail about the official who the councilman interrogated. Mandarin RCs Lin & Garnsey, 2010; Lin, 2010

7. Mandarin RC Processing ORs easier than SRs? (Hsiao & Gibson, 2003; Packard, 2005; Hsu & Chen, 2009; Lin, 2010; but Lin & Bever, 2006) - ORs have default SVO argument order - ORs have shorter GAP-FILLER distance … councilman interrogate ___ 1 DE official 1 GAP FILLER vs … ___ 1 interrogate councilman DE official 1 GAP FILLER - But effects often weak or absent in simple RCs

8. SR vs OR Modifying Main Clause Subject Reading Time (Msec) SR: [like teacher DE girl ] already go home PERIOD OR: [teacher like DE girl ] already go home PERIOD * * * * 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

9. SR vs OR with Classifier Modifying Main Clause Subject * * * * Reading Time (Msec) SR: [That+CL like teacher DE girl ] already go home PERIOD OR: [That+CL teacher like DE girl ] already go home PERIOD * * * * 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300

10. SR vs OR Modifying Main Clause Object SR: Parents invite [ like teacher DE girl] PERIOD OR: Parents invite [teacher like DE girl] PERIOD Reading Time (Msec) 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 * * * *

11. SR vs OR with Classifier Modifying Main Clause Object * Reading Time (Msec) * * 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 SR: Parents invite [ that+CL like teacher DE girl] PERIOD OR: Parents invite [that+CL teacher like DE girl] PERIOD

12. OR with Classifier (& Pronoun) Modifying Main Clause Object Reading Time (Msec) * * 1000 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 OR: Parents invite [that+CL teacher like DE girl] PERIOD OR(Pron):Parents invite [that+CL we like DE girl] PERIOD OR(Mis): Parents invite [that+*CL teacher like DE pet] PERIOD *

13. Topicalization of Main Clause Object Main clause objects can be topicalized by fronting - Regardless of whether the object is modified by a RC OR Modifying Topicalized Main Clause Object: 議員 質詢 的 官員 新聞 已經 開始 詳細 報導 yiyuan zhixun de guanyuan xinwen yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao councilman interrogate DE official news already begin detail report About the official who the councilman interrogated, the news has already begun to report in detail. SR Modifying Topicalized Main Clause Object: 質詢 議員 的 官員 新聞 已經 開始 詳細 報導 zhixun yiyuan de guanyuan xinwen yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao interrogate councilman DE official news already begin detail report About the official who interrogated the councilman, the news has already begun to report in detail.

14. Dropping the Head Noun Arguments that would be pronominalized in Eng can be dropped in Mandarin - Including Head N of a RC - Which can be pronominalized as “the one” or “the person” in English - Relativizer DE remains when the HN is dropped Headless Topicalized OR: 議員 質詢 的 官員 新聞 已經 開始 詳細 報導 yiyuan zhixun de guanyuan xinwen yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao councilman interrogate DE official news already begin detail report About the person/one who the councilman interrogated, the news has already begun to report in detail. Headless Topicalized SR: 質詢 議員 的 官員 新聞 已經 開始 詳細 報導 zhixun yiyuan de guanyuan xinwen yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao interrogate councilman DE official news already begin detail report About the person/one who interrogated the councilman, the news has already begun to report in detail.

15. Ambiguity when Head N Dropped in Topicalized OR In examples so far - Main clause subject noun (news) is Inanimate - So it’s not a possible HN for either a SR or OR with verb interrogate In contrast, when main clause subject noun is Animate (reporter) - Possible to mistake it as the HN of the RC Headless Topicalized SR: 質詢 議員 的 官員 記者 已經 開始 詳細 報導 zhixun yiyuan de guanyuan jizhe yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao interrogate councilman DE official reporter already begin detail report Do Mandarin speakers use Animacy information immediately to help them interpret ambiguous structural relationships in sentences? - If yes, unlikely to mistake news as the HN, in spite of its position after DE - But are likely to mistake reporter in that position as HN

16. Possible Interpretations of Ambiguity Headless Topicalized SR: 質詢 議員 的 官員 記者 已經 開始 詳細 報導 zhixun yiyuan de guanyuan jizhe yijing kaishi xiangxi baodao interrogate councilman DE official reporter already begin detail report Multiple possible interpretations: 1. The reporter who interrogated the councilman has already begun to report about it in detail. 2. About the interrogation of the councilman (by someone unspecified), the reporter has already begun to report in detail. …

17. Some Predictions 1. SRs harder to process than ORs (Hsiao & Gibson, 2003; see, however, Lin & Bever, 2006) 2. Sentences with Headless RCs harder to process than ones with Heads 3. Animate main clause subject nouns are more likely to be interpreted as the missing head in headless RCs and thus to show more processing difficulty when that turns out not to be true

18. Stimuli in Two Experiments 80 sets of 8 versions, all with topicalized main clause object modified by RC - OR vs SR (Both Expts) - HN Present vs HN Absent (Both Expts) - Main clause Subject Noun Animate (Expt 1) vs Inanimate (Expt 2) +60 distractor sentences

19. Participants Native-Mandarin-speaking students at Taiwan Normal University - Varying degrees of fluency in other lgs, including English - Experiment 1 = 40 - Experiment 2 = 48

20. Procedure -Self-paced central word-by-word reading, each word replacing previous one -Yes/No comprehension questions after 23% (Expt 1) & 37% (Expt 2) of trials -Presented in Chinese characters -Native-Mandarin-speaking experimenter conducted session entirely in Mandarin

25. Summary of Results & Some Interpretation Mandarin SRs are harder than ORs, opposite the pattern for English –Higher memory load &/or integration difficulty due to word order in SR because of Head-Final order of Mandarin RC –Difference lasts until end of sentence when RC Head Noun & main clause Subject Noun both Animate –But disappears after main clause Subject Noun when it’s Inanimate Probably because that makes it less confusable with RC Head Noun (Warren & Gibson, 2002; Lewis et al., 2006) Headless RCs harder than RCs with overt Heads, but an Inanimate main clause Subject Noun makes them MUCH easier –Helps immediately to rule out alternative interpretations that are possible when both Ns Animate Thus, Mandarin speakers do make immediate use of plausibility to resolve structural ambiguity