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Chapter 2 Nature of Reading

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1 Chapter 2 Nature of Reading

2 Introduction Historical Context for Models of Reading
Simple View of Reading Developmental Models of Reading Adams’ Cognitive Model of Reading Information Processing Model of Reading What Is the Relation Between Reading and IQ? Transactional View of Reading Speaking, Reading, and Writing An Inclusive View of Reading How Do We Know If a Student Has a Reading Disability? How Do We Distinguish English Language Learning Challenges from Disabilities? Adults with Limited Literacy Skills The Literacy Instruction Pie Using Knowledge of Reading to Understand Reading Assessment

3 Historical Context for Models of Reading
Medical Models to Explain Reading Difficulties “word blindness” Within the Individual Etiologies

4 Simple View of Reading RC = D x LC, RC is reading comprehension
D is decoding LC is linguistic comprehension Both can be expressed as a value between 0 (nullity) to 1 (perfection) Gough and Tunmer (1986) and Hoover and Gough (1990)

5 Simple View of Reading

6 Developmental Models of Reading
Chall’s Stage Model Spear-Swerling: Off-track: “Becoming Disabled” Frith’s Developmental Model (Sawyer, Kim & Lipa-Wade)

7 TABLE 2.1 Chall’s Model of the Developmental Stages of Reading
Stages/Names Age Learning Goals Activities/Tools Stage 0: Prereading and emergent literacy Birth through preschool and kindergarten Relation between alphabet, words, sounds and meaning, purpose of books Hearing stories and nursery rhymes read by caregivers, “pretend reading and writing,” modeling communications and language from Sesame Street and similar programs/formats Stage 1: Initial Reading/Decoding Grades 1 and 2 Specific linkages between letters, words, and sounds; start to realize reading mistakes and rules of spelling Educator-lead reading and phonics using preprimers and primers, basic writing instruction, some trade books Stage 2: Confirmation and Fluency; ungluing from print Grades 2 and 3 Building fluency and automaticity and beginning use of context to make meaning Reading about known content using basal readers, trade books, worksheets/workbooks Stage 3: Reading for Learning new knowledge (from a single viewpoint) Grades 4 through 8 Learning from content text; acquiring vocabulary; developing strategies Basal readers; novels, dictionaries; textbooks from content areas Stage 4: Appreciating multiple viewpoints Grades 9 through 12, technical school, and early college years Appreciate varying perspectives, layers of complexity Textbooks for content areas, reference books such as encyclopedias, journals; nonfiction biographies Stage 5:Construction and Reconstruction—A world view Late college and graduate school Reading for targeted detail and purpose for complete understanding within world-wide context Books, journals, reference books in areas of advanced complexity/expertise

8 Spear-Swerling & Sternberg Developmental Model (1996)

9 Frith’s Developmental Model
(Sawyer, Kim & Lipa-Wade, 2000)

10 Adams’ Cognitive Model of Reading

11 Adams’ Cognitive Model (1990)

12 Information Processing Model of Reading

13 General Information Processing Model

14 Cognitive Correlates of Reading and Writing
TABLE 2.2 Cognitive Abilities and Related Reading/Writing Skills Cognitive Ability Associated Literacy Skill Long Term Memory/Retrieval Storage and retention of information Ability to retrieve and use previously stored information Basic Reading Skills Reading Comprehension Written Expression Auditory Processing Discrimination, analysis, and synthesis of auditory stimuli Auditory attention, perception and discrimination despite background noise Phonemic Awareness Manipulation, analysis and synthesis of discrete sounds Spelling Basic Writing Skills Visual Processing Perception, analysis and synthesis of visual stimuli Storage and memory of visual stimuli Not strongly related to achievement Short Term Memory (Auditory) Processing and holding auditory stimuli in awareness and manipulating/using it within a few seconds Processing Speed Rapid cognitive processing without higher order thinking Attentiveness and fluency in processing Verbal Reasoning Reasoning and comprehension using language Verbal expression Vocabulary General Information and Knowledge Acquired knowledge Long term memory Fluid Reasoning Inductive and deductive reasoning Problem solving on novel tasks Cognitive Correlates of Reading and Writing

15 What is the Relation Between Reading and IQ?
Increases with age IQ is more highly correlated with reading comprehension than with basic reading skills When is it helpful to administer IQ/cognitive ability tests to struggling readers?

16 Transactional View of Reading
Reading is transaction, a two-way process, involving a reader and a text at a particular time under particular circumstances” (Rosenblatt, 1982, p. 269).

17 Speaking, Reading, and Writing
Some researchers have argued that vocabulary is more important than phonological awareness in predicting early reading skills (see Gee, 2001). Both writers and readers are drawing on personal linguistic/experiential reservoirs in a to-and-fro transaction with a text. Their composing and reading activities are both complementary and different” (Rosenblatt, 1993, p. 384).

18 An Inclusive View of Reading

19 Appendix B

20 How Do We Know If a Student Has a Reading Disability?

21 How do we know if a student has a learning disability in reading?
Learning disability is a valid construct LD Roundtable, 2004 Dyslexia is the most common type of learning disability Weakness in a sea of strengths (Shaywitz, 2003) Difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition Deficits in phonological processing &/or rapid automatic naming Secondary difficulties in reading comprehension

22 Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEA) 2004
Definition of learning disability did not change Specific learning disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia and developmental aphasia.

23 IDEA 2004 cont’d Does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, or mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or of environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage

24 IDEA 2004 cont’d Changes in identification procedures for specific learning disabilities States 1) Must not require the use of a severe discrepancy between intellectual ability and achievement for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, as defined in 300.8(c)(10) 2) Must permit the use of a process based on the child’s response to scientific, research-based intervention; and 3) May permit the use of other alternative research-based procedures for determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, as defined in 300.8(c)(10)

25 What are areas of Specific Learning Disability (SLD)?
Basic reading skills (decoding and word recognition) Reading fluency (added in 2004 regulations) Reading comprehension Math problem solving Math computation Written expression Oral expression Listening comprehension

26 Why Focus on Reading? 80–90% of all students identified with SLD exhibit weaknesses in reading Students with SLD comprise about half the Special Education population Students in other disability categories (e.g., intellectual disabilities, emotional disturbance) typically have reading difficulties Reading proficiency is critical for academic and vocational success

27 IDEA (2004) Definition of Specific Learning Disability in Reading
Historically included: Basic Reading Skills Phonetic decoding (nonsense words, phonics) Sight recognition (automatic recognition of letters and “sight” words) Reading Comprehension Vocabulary (synonyms, antonyms, analogies, fill-in-the blank, definitions, context) Comprehension (answering questions, cloze, maze, retelling)

28 IDEA (2004) Definition of Specific Learning Disability in Reading
Now includes Reading Fluency Fluency-accuracy, rate, and prosody Most measures are oral A few measures are silent Measures include passages, sight and nonsense words, phonemes, and retelling

29 Alphabet Soup: Alternate Definition DSM-5
Alphabet Soup: Alternate Definition DSM-5* (American Psychiatric Association, 2013) Specific Learning Disorder with Impairment in Reading Word reading accuracy Reading rate or fluency Reading comprehension Difficulties learning and using academic skills, as indicated by the presence of at least one of the following symptoms that have persisted for at least 6 months, despite the provision of interventions that target those difficulties: Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading (e.g., reads single words aloud incorrectly or slowly and hesitantly, frequently guesses words, has difficulty sounding out words). Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read (e.g., may read text accurately but not understand the sequence, relationships, inferences, or deeper meaning of what is read). *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual

30 Ways to Determine SLD: IQ-Achievement Discrepancy Model
Attempts to assess SLD as a gap between ability and achievement in a specific academic area such as reading Criticisms: “Wait to fail” model Yields limited instructional information

31 Ways to Determine SLD: Response to Intervention (RtI)
Students who fail to respond to generally effective (i.e., scientifically-based) instruction are referred for comprehensive assessment to determine SLD

32 Ways to Determine SLD: Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses
Requires a comprehensive evaluation of both cognitive abilities and achievement, one that operationalizes the broad range of intellectual abilities (e.g., working memory, long-term memory, auditory and visual processing, processing speed, quantitative reasoning, fluid reasoning) and relevant areas of achievement (e.g., basic reading skills, reading fluency, reading comprehension, basic math skills, math reasoning)

33 Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses cont’d
An important distinction between the PSW model and the ability-achievement discrepancy model is that the PSW requires that a link be established between achievement deficits and the specific cognitive weaknesses shown in the research literature to be related to those achievement deficits.

34 How Do We Distinguish English Language Learning Challenges from Disabilities?
Second Language Acquisition-Associated Phenomena (Brown, 2004) Consider performance in native language Does the student perform similarly to other ELL students with similar background? Compare BICS (basic interpersonal communication skills) with CALP (cognitive academic language proficiency) Compare verbal to nonverbal performance

35 Adults with Limited Literacy Skills
Individuals with disabilities and individuals whose first language is not English are overrepresented in the adult basic education population, the population of adults who exhibit low literacy levels in English and do not hold a high school diploma. Not all adults with limited literacy skills are alike.

36 The Literacy Instruction Pie
Word Analysis Fluency Reading & Writing Connection Vocabulary Comprehension

37 Using Knowledge of Reading to Understand Reading Assessment

38 What’s the connection? How do the IDEA areas of reading/learning disabilities related to the National Reading Panel findings?

39 Comprehension Vocabulary Comprehension (Morphology) Sight Recognition
Basic Reading Sight Recognition Phonics Fluency (Orthography) Phonemic Awareness Areas Recognized by National Reading Panel

40 Salient Differences IDEA identified three areas: Basic Reading, Reading Fluency, and Reading Comprehension (and Written Expression) NRP identified five areas: Phonemic Awareness, Phonics, Fluency, Vocabulary, and Comprehension We will discuss several informal assessments covering these NRP areas Your handout also lists a number of informal assessments and which NRP areas each assesses Sight recognition has been added to the presentation and your handout as a 6th area important to reading Sight recognition is sometimes considered a

41 Why Are the NRP/IDEA Areas Important in Choosing an Assessment?
Awareness of the areas helps you choose assessments to administer If you are unaware of an area, you may not assess it and thus miss an important factor that may account for difficulties or that may be a strength to build upon

42 Summary Historical Context for Models of Reading
Simple View of Reading Developmental Models of Reading Adams’ Cognitive Model of Reading Information Processing Model of Reading What Is the Relation Between Reading and IQ? Transactional View of Reading Speaking, Reading, and Writing An Inclusive View of Reading How Do We Know If a Student Has a Reading Disability? How Do We Distinguish English Language Learning Challenges from Disabilities? Adults with Limited Literacy Skills The Literacy Instruction Pie Using Knowledge of Reading to Understand Reading Assessment

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