1. Extent and Dimensions of Gender Bias in India Premananda Bharati, Manoranjan Pal and Bholanath Ghosh Indian Statistical Institute 203 BT Road, Kolkata 700108

2. Introduction  Gender disparity refers to inequality between male and female through social, biological or psychological aspects of life.  The Middle East, North Africa, East Asia and South Asia are having the largest gender differences.  Discrimination against specific gender depends on individual or household based factors depending on many hidden or underlying factors. It directly or indirectly has effects on malnutrition, morbidity and even mortality in the society.

3. Kinds of Gender Bias Considered Here Female infanticide Unequal childhood care Intra-household food distribution Disproportionate share of child malnutrition Gender Bias Education

4. Objectives India is a cosmopolitan vast country, so it has a great diversity in every aspects of life. It is not possible to cover gender discrimination in every aspects of life. The main objectives are to see the gender bias through child health in respect of mortality, morbidity, immunization taken, nutritional status and feeding practices.

5. Methodology  Descriptive Measures from recent national level data (NSS, Census, NFHS etc. ) -- Special Emphasis Given: weight-for-age, height-for-age, and weight-for- height. Cut off point: Two standard deviations below the reference population (international reference population as recommended by the World Health Organization).  Children below the cut off point for Weight for Age: Underweight Height for Age: Stunting (Chronic under nutrition) Weight for Height: Wasting (too thin)

6. Sex Ratio at Birth, 2011

7. Sex Ratio of India (2001 – 2011) Census and its change India/States2011 Census2001 CensusChange Punjab 89387419 Haryana87786116 Himachal Pradesh9749704 Uttar Pradesh90889810 Gujarat918921-3 Rajasthan9269224 Bihar9169215 Maharashtra94692224 Kerala1084105826 Madhya Pradesh93092010 Andhra Pradesh99297814 Tamil Nadu9959869 Assam95493222 Orissa9789726 Karnataka9689644 West Bengal94793413 India9409337 Source: Census, New Delhi, 2011.

8. Gender Bias - Sex Ratio Total0-6 Years

9. Infant Mortality Rates by Sex, 2005 India/StatesMaleFemaleF-M (Gap) Haryana557621 Jharkhand456217 Jammu & Kashmir49589 Rajasthan71798 Madhya Pradesh77847 Punjab46515 Uttar Pradesh75794 Assam69723 Gujarat61643 Orissa77792 Bihar61632 Andhra Pradesh62642 Maharashtra40422 Tamil Nadu38402 Kerala15161 West Bengal40 0 INDIA62664 Source: Registrar General, India, SRS Bulletin, Oct., 2006, New Delhi, Oct. 2006.

10. Under Five Death Rates by Sex and Residence, 2002 India/StatesRuralUrban MaleFemaleMaleFemale Madhya Pradesh25.730.316.713.5 Uttar Pradesh23.828.018.215.7 Gujarat19.425.09.99.8 Assam22.724.99.010.9 Rajasthan22.923.913.318.4 Orissa27.823.212.118.0 Haryana16.022.210.214.4 Punjab11.921.58.013.4 Bihar15.619.714.112.9 Andhra Pradesh17.118.510.05.9 Karnataka18.317.46.96.6 HP16.613.05.17.1 West Bengal13.712.910.26.0 Maharashtra11.911.38.57.9 Tamil Nadu12.811.37.96.8 Kerala1.82.82.51.4 INDIA18.820.710.310.2 Source: Registrar General, India, Sample Registration System, Statistical Report 2002, New Delhi 2004.

11. Percentage distribution of health care taken during morbidity of under-five children in India by gender Morbidity Pattern:BoysGirls ARI Symptoms: Treatment was sought from a health provider71.765.8 Whether received antibiotics13.211.7 Fever: Treatment was sought from a health provider72.868.4 Whether received anti-malarial drugs9.46.8 Whether received antibiotics13.911.9 Diarrhea: Treatment was sought from a health provider61.657.7 Whether ORS given26.225.9 Whether received antibiotics16.813.8

12. Percentage distribution of immunization status of (12-23 months) children in India by gender Child ImmunizationBoysGirls BCG80.275.8 DPT (3 doses)57.453.0 Polio (3 doses)79.377.1 Measles61.455.8 All vaccination45.341.5

13. Gender disparity in health care and feeding practices in India, 1998-99 State Percent of children (12-23 months) who received all vaccinations Median duration of breastfeeding Percents of children < 3 years who were Health care disparity index (HCDI) HCDI rank Gender gap in health care Not taken to a health facility when sick Not treated for diarrhea MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale Andhra Pradesh54.262.827.823.327.933.720.021.52.0526.55 Assam22.39.236.026.055.662.035.441.9-11.552011.55 Bihar13.09.036.0 37.845.939.638.0-2102 Delhi71.867.222.619.417.215.421.713.9-3.9153.9 Gujarat53.152.922.521.225.432.028.531.1-0.7570.75 Goa79.985.824.622.2Ncnc 1.7534.15 Haryana62.463.225.823.512.212.07.16.1-0.7561.55 Himachal Pradesh87.278.925.323.34.34.44.76.4-5.15175.15 Jammu & Kashmir61.050.029.430.518.930.410.59.8-4.95166.05 Karnataka62.857.119.920.2Ncnc18.021.5-2.7113 Kerala77.182.625.424.012.723.2nc 2.0513.45 Madhya Pradesh27.317.924.025.940.144.127.932.9-3.75145.65 Maharashtra80.876.324.523.218.311.514.020.2-2.9122.9 Orissa44.143.333.636.038.349.333.835.20.841.6 Punjab74.569.226.418.97.64.3nc -6.4186.4 Rajasthan16.917.626.224.737.841.637.734.5-0.451.1 Sikkim50.543.831.624.850.467.326.538.01-6.75196.75 Tamil Nadu89.588.017.815.717.316.9 26.9-1.891.8 Uttar Pradesh23.618.826.425.235.542.930.230.3-3133 West Bengal44.243.536.033.544.352.5nc -1.681.6 India 1998-9943.140.926.424.633.539.226.828.0-22 India 1992-9336.734.125.323.617.8*22.0*17.8*21.0*-2.152.15 Source: IIPS & ORC MACRO, National Family Health Survey, 1998-99. PRCs and IIPS, Bombay, National Family Health Survey, 1992-93, and State level reports. Notes: nc – not computed because of small sample size. Reference period for fever and diarrhoea is two weeks prior to the survey. * 0 to 4 age group. HCDI = [all vaccine (F–M)+breastfeeding (F–M)]/2, Gender gap in health care = (all vaccine |F–M|+breastfeeding |F–M|)/2.

14. Disparity in nutritional status of children, 1998-99 State Percent of children under three years of age who are Nutrition disparity index (NDI) NDI rank Gender gap in nutrition status UWStunted Wasted MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale Andhra Pradesh35.140.237.439.89.19.0-2.467152.53 Assam35.237.150.549.714.511.80.53371.80 Bihar52.856.153.054.621.420.5-1.333111.93 Delhi36.831.935.738.313.411.21.50043.23 Gujarat40.350.042.045.313.918.6-5.900205.90 Goa34.521.623.810.712.613.78.30019.03 Haryana31.838.147.553.15.94.6-3.533184.40 Himachal Pradesh45.241.746.235.717.016.94.70024.70 Jammu & Kashmir36.232.639.937.512.910.52.80032.80 Karnataka42.245.735.138.121.418.5-1.200103.13 Kerala26.227.622.121.612.59.70.63351.57 Madhya Pradesh52.857.649.252.919.819.9-2.867172.87 Maharashtra49.250.038.841.020.322.3-1.667131.67 Orissa54.654.344.143.824.823.80.53360.53 Punjab27.330.338.739.78.45.7-0.43392.23 Rajasthan49.252.250.254.011.811.6-2.200142.33 Sikkim19.022.230.932.65.04.6-1.500121.77 Tamil Nadu35.837.629.928.920.719.00.30081.50 Uttar Pradesh49.653.953.457.711.410.8-2.667163.07 West Bengal45.552.336.647.014.812.3-4.900196.57 India 98-9945.348.944.147.015.715.2-2.0002.33 India 92-93*53.353.452.351.718.816.11.0671.13 Sources: IIPS & ORC MACRO, National Family Health Survey, 1998-99. PRCs and IIPS, Bombay, National Family Health Survey, 1992-93, State level reports, 1994 and 1995. * Age group 0 to 4 years. NDI = [underweight (M – F) + stunted (M – F) + wasted (M – F)] / 3 Gap in nutritional status = (underweight |M – F| + stunted |M – F| + wasted |M – F|) / 3

15. Boys Girls % WEIGHT FOR AGE < Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD  Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD < Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD  Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD % Underweight

16. Boys Girls HEIGHT FOR AGE < Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD  Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD % % < Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD  Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD Stunting

17. Boys Girls WEIGHT FOR HEIGHT < Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD  Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD % % < Median – 3 SD Median – 3 SD to Median – 2 SD  Median – 2 SD < Median – 2 SD Wasting

18. Literacy rate in India: 1951-2011

19. Increase in Literacy

20. Gender differences are also commonly seen in case of intra-household food distribution in different caste groups, but not in the tribal communities. Study on food distribution among tribal populations in India did not show gender inequality in food distribution at household level while it exists among the caste communities. The study also shows that religion, occupation and rural or urban factors are not related to gender differences in food distribution in the family.. Intra-household Food Distribution

21. Conclusion  This study reveals that between 1992-93 and 1998-99, India experienced a positive change in social development and levels of living.  However, there exists a substantial difference in the developmental opportunities of male and female children.  Disparity exists in different practices related to childcare as well as opportunities for educational attainment.  Though there is a little decrease in health care disparity and educational disparity, mortality and nutritional disparities have increased slightly in the country.

22. Conclusion  Gender disparity exists in varying degrees in all the states and is noticeably high in the larger states of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, and Rajasthan.  Increasing social development may help in reducing gender disparity in nutritional status of children.  Although educational disparity is moderately related to social development, level of living and female autonomy, it can be eliminated by government policies towards child education and rigorous implementation of these policies.