1. Phonology, part 2
While you work on another Quick Write, here’s a funny painting of Superman based on a kid’s drawing:
March 1, 2012

2. Weekday Update Today: more phonology
= we’ll look at distributions again from a slightly different angle.
Then we’ll discuss some reasons why linguists believe that phonology is part of what you “know” as a speaker of a language
...even though it is subconscious knowledge
I also want to give you some time to ask questions about the upcoming mid-term.
But before we get into that, let’s take a look at the last Quick Write…

3. A Noble Spirit

4. A Noble Spirit

5. A Noble Spirit

6. A Noble Spirit

7. Allomorphy What’s going on here? /in-/ + probable = improbable
/in-/ + mobile = immobile
/in-/ + possible = impossible
/in-/ changes to /im-/ before both /p/ and /m/.
/p/ and /m/ are both produced with the lips.
To explain patterns like this, we’re going to need to know something about how we actually produce the sounds of English.
We have to study Phonetics!

8. Place Assimilation Place assimilation occurs when:
One consonant’s place of articulation becomes identical to that of a neighboring consonant.
/n/ often takes on the place of articulation of a following consonant.
‘unpleasant’
‘month’
‘engrossed’
Likewise, alveolars--except for /s/ and /z/--assimilate to following dentals
Ex: width, tenth, wealth

9. Where Were We? In phonology, there are both phonemes and allophones.
Phonemes are contrastive sounds.
Change meaning in minimal pairs, etc.
Represent mental abstractions.
Allophones are variants of phonemes.
They appear in particular phonetic environments.
Represent observable, concrete reality.
There are formal rules that determine when a phoneme becomes an allophone in some environment.
/Phoneme/  [Allophone] / Environment

10. Where Were We? Example rules:
In English, [t] and [th] are allophones of the phoneme /t/.
/t/  [th] / at the beginning of stressed syllables
(unless it’s preceded by /s/)
In “Japanese”, [h], [ç] and [f] are allophones of the same phoneme.
Japanese rules: /h/  [ç] / ___ [i]
/h/  [f] / ___ [u]
How do we know that Japanese [h], [ç] and [f] are allophones of the same phoneme?

11. Questions
Q1: How do linguists know that Japanese [h], [ç] and [f] are actually allophones of the same phoneme?
A: because they are phonetically similar, and are in complementary distribution.
(not contrastive distribution)
Q2: How do we know that /h/ changes to [ç] and [f], and not the other way around?
A1: It’s the simplest way to describe the pattern.
A2: Japanese speakers think of the three sounds as “the same”, at some level.
Remember: we’re trying to describe the phonological rules (grammar) that speakers of a language “know”.

12. Distributions
A “distribution” is simply the collection of phonetic environments in which a sound may appear.
Phonetic environment = the sounds surrounding the phoneme or allophone in question.
Contrastive distribution:
Two sounds can both appear in the same phonetic environment.
And they can change the meaning of a word (as in a minimal pair).
 The two sounds are allophones of different phonemes.

13. Complementary Distribution
When sounds are in complementary distribution, they never appear in the same phonetic environment.
(They appear in non-overlapping environments.)
[h], [ç] and [f] are in complementary distribution in “Japanese”
[ç] appears before the vowel [i]
[f] appears before the vowel [u]
[h] appears before all the other vowels.
Sounds that are in complementary distribution are generally allophones of the same phoneme.
The phoneme just changes shape, depending on the context….

14. Enter… the Batman

15. An Analogy Consider Commissioner Gordon. He knows a couple of guys:
Batman
Bruce Wayne
He’s noticed that he never sees them together, in the same place, at the same time.
In fact, one of them (Batman) really only shows up in certain situations…

16. The Distribution of Batman and Bruce Wayne
Batman appears when:
The Joker is on a crime spree.
The Penguin has kidnapped the mayor’s daughter.
Catwoman just broke out of jail, etc.
Bruce Wayne appears when:
They’re at a philanthrophy convention.
The auto show is in town.
He’s jogging in Central Park, etc.

17. Conditioning Environments
Do these environments have anything in common?
The Joker is on a crime spree.
The Penguin has kidnapped the mayor’s daughter.
Catwoman just broke out of jail, etc.
They’re all crimefighting situations
They’re at a philanthrophy convention.
The auto show is in town.
He’s jogging in Central Park, etc.
They’re just non-crimefighting (“elsewhere”) situations…

18. Complementary Distribution
Bruce Wayne and Batman are in complementary distribution
They never appear together in the same place, at the same time
Batman appears here
Bruce Wayne appears here
other situations
crimefighting situations

19. Analyzing Distributions
Given two sounds in a language, treat them like Batman and Bruce Wayne.
Ask yourself: is it possible to show that they’re meaningfully different sounds (or people)?
2. Try to force them into the same situation together
In the case of Batman and Bruce Wayne, invite them both to the same party.
In the case of sounds, see if they ever appear in the same phonetic environment

20. Strategy, continued
3. Describe what kind of phonetic environment each sound appears in.
Figure out if there is anything in common among the various phonetic environments in which each sound appears.
If two different sounds never appear in the same phonetic environment, they’re in complementary distribution.
 You can then assume that they’re allophones of the same phoneme.

21. Restricted and Basic
A sound that only appears in a limited set of environments is the restricted allophone.
Ex: Batman only appears in crimefighting situations, so…
Batman is the restricted “allo-person”
A sound that appears more generally is the basic allophone.
Bruce Wayne is the basic “allo-person”.
In Japanese:
[f] only appears before [u]  restricted allophone
[h] appears before [a], [e], [o]  basic allophone

22. Phonological Rules In general, you can assume:
The basic allophone is the representation of the underlying phoneme.
The appearance of the restricted phoneme is conditioned by its environment.
4. You can write a rule for the conditioned allophone:
/Bruce Wayne/  [Batman] / __ crimefighting situations
/h/  [f] / ___ [u]

23. Non-Complementary
What happens if you find two sounds in the same environment?
There are two possibilities:
They are in contrastive distribution
…if they contrast between the meanings of different words
They are in “free variation”
…if they do not change the meaning of the words

24. Free Variation
= Two different sounds appear in the same environment, but they don’t change the meaning of the word.
Ex: vs . “kit”
 and are allophones of the same phoneme.
They are in free variation.
= you can freely substitute one for the other.
Another example (some dialects of English):
“thought”
Also witness: Tina Fey

25. Some More Data
There is an interesting rule regarding the production of /r/ in some English dialects.
Compare Canadian English with English English
CE EE
“care”
“park”
“read”
“other”
“ride”
“carrot”
“cart”
Do you see any patterns?

26. The Rules In English English:
/r/ appears as [r] when it precedes vowels
Examples: read, carrot
/r/ appears as when it appears at the end of a syllable or word
Examples: care, other
/r/ makes a preceding vowel long when it appears before a consonant in the same syllable
Examples: park, cart

27. Rhotic vs. Non-Rhotic
Note: English is divided up between “rhotic” dialects and “non-rhotic” dialects
rhotic: /r/ appears everywhere
non-rhotic: /r/ disappears, sometimes
Rhotic dialects:
Canadian English, General American, Irish English, Scots English…
Non-Rhotic dialects:
English English, Australian English, some areas of the American South and East Coast…

28. Really, it does Phonologists are not just making this stuff up for fun
Interesting phenomenon:
in non-rhotic dialects, /r/ sometimes appears in places where it doesn’t appear in rhotic dialects
Ex: “I was thinking about an idear I had...”
Q: Why on earth does that happen?

29. A Conundrum Phonological rules look like this:
/Phoneme/  [Allophone] / Environment
(=Abstract) (=Observable)
That means that, as linguists, we only see the allophones, on the (observable) surface.
Q: How can we figure out what the phonemes are?
(not to mention the rules?)
Note: babies learning language have the same problem

30. Idears, Explained In non-rhotic dialects,
words ending in /Vr/ surface as
Phonology notation note:
V = “vowel”
C = “consonant”
Examples:
“care”
“fear”
“wire”

31. Idears, Explained But remember: in these dialects,
/r/ appears as [r] whenever it precedes a vowel.
So an /r/ appears as [r] at the end of words like “care”, “fear” and “wire”…
when they appear before other words which start with vowels.
Examples:
“care a lot”
“fear I had”
“wire a house”

32. Psychological Reality
When a child is learning to speak a non-rhotic dialect, “idea” looks no different from “care”, “fear” or “wire”
It normally ends with
 it gets interpreted as /ajdir/ “idear”
The /r/ will surface whenever it appears before a word that begins with a vowel: “an idear I had”.
Psychological (phonemic) representations of the same word are different between dialects:
non-rhotic: /ajdir/
rhotic:

33. Other Evidence
Speech errors provide more evidence that things are going on inside the mind that we can’t observe directly, in physical reality.
“Slips of the tongue”
Examples:
“stick in the mud”  “smuck in the tid”
“gone to seed”  “god to seen”
Both errors exhibit metathesis.
= two sounds have switched places with each other.

34. Example Error “stick in the mud”  “smuck in the tid”
error: phonemic and have switched places.
Phonetically: 
Notice: in the error, the /t/ in “tid” is aspirated.
The aspiration rule has to apply after the switch.
Speech error process:
First, phonemes switch
Then, phonological rules apply…

35. Loanword Phonology
Another way to establish the “psychological reality” of phonology is to look at how sounds change in words that are “borrowed” from another language.
In these cases, the “underlying” phoneme = the original sound.
Ex: English words borrowed into Japanese
“sea food” 
“cinema” 
“Citibank” 
“zip code” 
“shepherd” 

36. Pidgins
When speakers of different languages encounter each other, they have a variety of communication options:
Use one of their native languages
Use a “lingua franca” = a common second language
Create a new language and use that
Languages created in contact situations are known as pidgins.
They tend to have a simplified grammar and lexicon.
Historically, pidgins have often developed:
in centers of trade
through slavery

37. Creoles
When pidgins are acquired by children as their native language, they become creoles.
Originally a pidgin, Hawaiian Creole emerged in a complex trade setting in the 1800s
Hawaii’s economic draw was sugar cane
Laborers were imported from China, Portugal, Korea, Japan, Russia, Puerto Rico, the Phillippines...
While the English, Americans and Japanese battled for political control.
An English-based pidgin developed as a means of communication between the different groups.
Listen to a sample
Also check out:

38. The Quick Write
Let’s check out the phonology of a small sample of Hawaiian Creole.
What’s happening to the consonants here?