1. ‘Qualitative content analysis’, coding and computer-assisted data analysis Dr Alice Mah Social Research Methods

2. Outline Introduction ‘Qualitative content analysis’ Grounded theory and coding Computer-aided qualitative data analysis Principles and techniques of data coding Advantages and limitations to computer- aided qualitative data analysis Conclusion

3. Introduction What do you do once you have collected your qualitative data (field notes, interview transcripts, documents, photos, etc.)? There are various methods of analysing qualitative data:  grounded theory  semiotic analysis  conversation analysis  narrative analysis  discourse analysis, Some of these methods are very specialized and linked to particular epistemologies (and we will discuss two, discourse and narrative analysis, next week). BUT..

4. ‘Qualitative content analysis’ (Seale 2004) Seale (2004, p. 300) argues that most qualitative data analysis shares a ‘very common activity of looking for interesting things in data’, what he terms ‘qualitative content analysis’ or ‘interpretive analysis’. The ‘common activity’ generally involves searching for key themes, as well as some form of coding (or categorizing, labelling, or indexing). We will discuss this ‘common activity’ through the example of grounded theory, linked to the development of systematic qualitative coding (of themes, categories, etc)

5. GROUNDED THEORY AND CODING

6. Grounded Theory: origins Introduced by Glaser and Strauss (The Discovery of Grounded Theory, 1967): Opposed to the testing of old theories (anti-Grand Theory and anti-positivist) Exploratory, constant comparative method Often used in qualitative and ethnographic studies Generates theory inductively through analysis of empirical data Limited role for pre-existing theory Tends to generate middle-range theory

7. Grounded Theory: “[It] is not really a specific method or technique. Rather, it is a style of doing qualitative analysis that includes a number of distinct features, such as the theoretical sampling, and certain methodological guidelines, such as the making of constant comparisons and the use of coding paradigm, to ensure conceptual development and density” (Strauss 1987: 5)

8. Theory generalisation: the method of constant comparison Theoretical sampling  data collection is controlled by the emerging theory Stages of analysis I.Coding into categories  comparison of coded incidents  ideas about properties of categories II.Integration of categories and their properties  interaction of properties  interaction of different categories III.Theoretical saturation  no new properties or categories appear and no new interactions occur IV.Writing the (substantive) theory  chapter headings – categories and interactions  section headings – properties  illustrative examples – coded data *see Seale 1999, pp. 96- 97

9. Key terms Phenomena – central ideas in the data represented as concepts Concepts – the building blocks of theory (conceptual labels placed on discrete happenings, events, and other instances of phenomena) Categories –a classification of concepts (more abstract than concepts, ie. concepts that stand for phenomena) Properties – characteristics of a categories, the delineation of which defines and gives it meaning Subcategories – concepts that pertain to a category, giving it further clarification and specification Memos – the researcher’s record of analysis, thoughts, interpretations, questions, and directions of further data collection (Strauss and Corbin 1998, pp. 101, 110)

10. Coding data: Strauss and Corbin 1998 Further development of the grounded theory approach in the 1970-90s. Coding: the process of analyzing data Inductive and iterative process Strauss and Corbin: three ways of coding data: i.Open coding ii.Axial coding iii.Selective coding

11. Open coding “The process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data…” “naming and categorising phenomena through close examination of data”  broader or more comprehensive and more abstract labels  insightful labels  “borrowed” concepts  “in vivo” codes (catchy terms) (see Strauss & Corbin 1998, p. 115, and ‘Open Coding’, chapter 44 in Seale 2004)

12. Further elaboration of Open Coding (through constant comparison): Axial Coding  “microanalysis” of a single category, exploring its conditions, contexts, action/interaction and consequences Selective Coding  emergence of theory  selection of a single ‘core category’ (all other categories have a subsidiary role)

13. Modes of coding Helpful to think about two different modes of coding (Kelle 2000, p. 295): 1.referential, as signposts to certain text passages (open, inductive and interpretive) 2.factual (more deductive and related to classic content analysis)

14. Criticisms of Grounded Theory Inductive vs. deductive?  presence of theory before data collection and testing theory in the course of research (e.g. research question, researcher’s training, etc) Data dependency High risk of superficial strategies Critique from postmodernism  the narrow analytic strategy – heavy reliance on coding  standardized and mechanistic procedures  fragmented and decontextualized data  single, exclusive interpretation of data (researcher’s control over data and analysis)  non-reflexive approach (relational nature of the qualitative research is not acknowledged)

15. Beyond grounded theory: coding as a ‘common activity’ Grounded theory has been very helpful and influential re: the development of systematic qualitative coding and analysis BUT the principles and techniques of coding can be applied more generally to the ‘common activity’ of ‘qualitative content analysis’ or ‘interpretive analysis’, without maintaining the theoretical limitations of classic grounded theory ie. coding ≠ (is not equal to) grounded theory

16. COMPUTER-AIDED QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS

17. Computer-aided qualitative data analysis and grounded theory Computer-aided qualitative data analysis is often connected to the grounded theory approach (Strauss and Corbin): Theoretical foundation Principle of coding Comparison techniques BUT computer software for qualitative data can also be used with other forms of qualitative analysis Computer-aided analysis and grounded theory share many of the same advantages and limitations

18. Computer-aided qualitative data analysis Computer software for qualitative data analysis (Nvivo, ATLAS/ti, ETHNOGRAPH, NUD*ist) software packages: ‘tools to mechanize tasks of ordering and archiving texts… for “data administration” and archiving rather than tools for “data analysis”’ (Kelle 2000: 285) Kelle, U (2000), Computer-assisted analysis: coding and indexing, in M. Bauer and G. Gaskell (eds) Qualitative Researching with Text, Image and Sound. London: Sage, pp. 282-298.

20. Searching for text in NVivo (Gibbs in Seale 2004, pp. 306-311) Much of qualitative analysis consists of “looking for things in the text” Coding and analytic ideas (creating nodes in Nvivo, with hierarchies reflecting concepts and categories) Checking completeness: searching for “negative cases” that don’t fit the pattern or theory we think we have discovered Metaphors: use of imagery as rhetorical device (often ‘standard’ metaphors, eg. ‘passing away’, ‘getting hitched’) Accounts: narratives where people try to account for, justify, excuse, legitimate and so on their actions or their situation.

21. Advantages of computer-aided qualitative data analysis Efficient, save time, assist the management of larger samples, good for research teams Can make the research process more systematic and explicit, which makes it seem more valid or trustworthy Can enhance the researcher’s creativity, by allowing more time to experiment and play with the data (Kelle 2000, pp. 293-294)

22. Limitations of computer-aided qualitative data analysis Can become overwhelmed by larger samples and the wider volume of data that the software can technically manage. Larger samples and more software tools/functions does not necessarily make the research more valid. Could potentially alienate researchers from their data and impose methodological approaches (ie. grounded theory) which overemphasise coding and neglect other forms of textual analysis.

23. Conclusion ‘Qualitative content analysis’ (or: coding, or: thematic analysis, or: interpretive analysis) is a way of describing the ‘common activity’ of analysing qualitative data Qualitative data analysis may be done with or without the assistance of qualitative computer software (e.g. Nvivo) Computer aided qualitative data analysis shares many advantages and disadvantages with grounded theory. BUT these software packages are primary tools to assist with qualitative research and can also help facilitate different forms and methods of qualitative analysis.

24. Seminars this week Download Nvivo to laptops Watch Nvivo tutorials and review help files. ‘Getting up and started with NVivo’ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oelXFnJ- 7Ms Bring documents for analysis Do readings for discussion and ‘manual’ coding exercise