1. Data and Knowledge Representation Languages Introduction to the course Originally by Alessandro Agostini and Fausto Giunchiglia Modified by Fausto Giunchiglia, Rui Zhang and Vincenzo Maltese

2. 2 Website and provisional syllabus http://disi.unitn.it/~ldkr/ldkr2015/index.html http://disi.unitn.it/~ldkr/ldkr2015/syllabus.pdf

3. 3 Outline  Modeling and logical modeling  Domain  Language  Theory  Model  Languages  Logic: formal languages  Using Logic  Specification  Automation  Expressiveness  Efficiency VS. Complexity  Decidability

4. 4 Modeling the world DOMAIN (e.g. the girls in foreground) INDIVIDUAL SET RELATION (e.g. Near, Sister) A model is an abstraction of a part of the world MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

5. 5 Modeling World Language L Theory T Domain D Model M Data Knowledge Meaning Mental Model SEMANTIC GAP MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

6. 6 Modeling: explained  World: the phenomenon we want to describe  Domain: the abstract relevant elements in the real world  Mental Model: what we have in mind. It is the first abstraction of the world (subject to the semantic gap)  Language: the set of words and rules we use to build sentences used to express our mental model  Theory: the set of sentences (constraints) about the world expressed in the language that limit the possible models  Model: the formalization of the mental model, i.e. the set of true facts in the language, in agreement with the theory  Semantic gap: the impossibility to capture the entire reality NOTE: this does not necessarily need to be in formal semantics MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

7. 7 Mental models There is a monkey in a laboratory with some bananas hanging out of reach from the ceiling. A box is available that will enable the monkey to reach the bananas if he climbs on it. The monkey and box have height Low, … … but if the monkey climbs onto the box he will have height High, the same as the bananas. [...]” NOTE: each picture is a different model MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

8. 8 Example of informal Modeling World Mental Model SEMANTIC GAP Model M L: natural language D: {monkey, banana, tree} T: “If the monkey climbs on the tree, he can get the banana” M: “The monkey actually climbs on the tree and gets the banana” Theory T Language L Domain D MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

9. 9 Logical Modeling Modeling Realization World Language L Theory T Domain D Model M Data Knowledge Meaning Mental Model SEMANTIC GAP Interpretation I Entailment ⊨ NOTE: the key point is that in logical modeling we have formal semantics MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

10. 10 Logical Modeling: explained  Domain: relevant objects  Logical Language: the set of formal words and rules we use to build complex sentences  Interpretation: the function that associates elements of the language to the elements in the domain  Theory / Knowledge Base (KB): the set of facts which are always true (in data and knowledge)  Model: the set of true facts in the language describing the mental model (the part of the world observed), in agreement with the theory  Truth-relation / logical entailment ( ⊨ ): deduction, reasoning, inference MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

11. “The author of Romeo and Juliet is Shakespeare” author(R&G, Shakespeare) GirlsPlaying = {Mary, Sara, Julie} “Bananas are yellow”“Bananas have a curve shape” “All men are mortal”man  mortal GirlsPlaying = True Intensional vs Extensional semantics  Intensional: I can only express the fact that a given proposition is true or false  Extensional: I provides the objects of the domain corresponding to the proposition MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC 11

12. 12 Example of formal (intentional) modeling World SEMANTIC GAP L = {MClimbs, MGetBanana, , ,  } D= {T, F} T = {  MClimbs  MGetBanana} A possible model M: I(MClimbs) = T I(MGetBanana) = T Mental Model M Theory T Language L Domain D MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

13. 13 Example of formal (extensional) modeling World SEMANTIC GAP L = {Monkey, Climbs, GetBanana, , ,  } D= {Cita, Banana#1, Tree#1} T = {  (Monkey  Climbs)  GetBanana} A possible model M: I(Monkey) = {Cita} I(Climbs) = {(Cita, Tree#1)} I(GetBanana) = {(Cita, Banana#1)} Mental Model M Theory T Language L Domain D MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

14. 14  A (usually finite) set of words (the alphabet) and rules to compose them to build “correct sentences”  e.g. Monkey and GetBanana are words  e.g. Monkey  Get Banana is a sentence (rule: A  B)  A tool for codifying our (mental) model (what we have in mind):  Sentences (syntax) with an intended meaning (semantics)  e.g. with the word Monkey we mean Language MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

15. 15  We need an algorithm for checking correctness of the sentences in a language Language and correctness PARSER s, L Yes, correct! No  We say that a language is decidable if it is possible to create such a tool that in finite time can take the decision MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

16. Syntax and Semantics  Syntax: the way a language is written:  Syntax is determined by a set of rules saying how to construct the expressions of the language from the set of atomic tokens (i.e., terms, characters, symbols).  The set of atomic tokens is called alphabet of symbols, or simply the alphabet).  Semantics: the way a language is interpreted:  It determines the meaning of the syntactic constructs (expressions), that is, the relationship between syntactic constructs and the elements of some universe of meanings (the intended model).  Such relationship is called interpretation. MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC 16

17. Example of Syntax and Semantics  Suppose we want to represent the fact that Mary and Sara are near each other. ENGLISH Mary is near Sara. formal syntax, informal semantics ‘SYMBOLIZED’ ENGLISH near(M,S) near(Mary, Sara) formal syntax, informal semantics LOGICS with an interpretation function I “near” by I it means near as spatial relation “M” by I it means Mary the girl “S” by I it means Sara the girl formal syntax, formal semantics MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC 17

18. 18 Formal vs. Informal languages  Language = Syntax (what we write) + Semantics (what we mean)  Formal syntax  Infinite/finite (always recognizable) alphabet  Finite set of formal constructors and building rules for phrase construction  Algorithm for correctness checking (a phrase in a language)  Formal Semantics  The relationship between syntactic constructs in a language L and the elements of an universe of meanings D is a (mathematical) function I: L  pow(D)  Informal syntax/semantics  the opposite of formal, namely the absence of the elements above. MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

19. Levels of Formalization Logics Diagrams NL Programming Languages English Italian Russian Hindi... ER UML... SQL... PL FOL DL... Both Syntax and Semantics can be formal or informal. Level 1 Level n FORMALITY informal semi-formal formal 19 MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

20. 20 Informal languages: natural language  Let us try to recognize relevant entities, relations and properties in the NL text below  The Monkey-Bananas (MB) problem by McCarthy, 1969 “There is a monkey in a laboratory with some bananas hanging out of reach from the ceiling. A box is available that will enable the monkey to reach the bananas if he climbs on it. The monkey and box have height Low, but if the monkey climbs onto the box he will have height High, the same as the bananas. [...]”  Question: How shall the monkey reach the bananas? MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

21. 21 Languages with formal syntax  In the Entity-Relationship (ER) Model [Chen 1976] the alphabet is a set of graphical objects, that are used to construct schemas (the sentences). Entity RelationAttribute MonkeyBox Climb 0..10..n  Examples of ER sentences: Banana Height MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

22. 22 Languages with formal syntax and semantics  Logics has two fundamental components:  L is a formal language (in syntax and semantics)  I is an interpretation function which maps sentences into a formal model M (over all possible ones) with a domain D  Domain D = {T, F} or D’ = {o 1, …, o n }  Language L = {A, , ,  }  Interpretation I: L  D is intensional or I: L  pow(D’) is extensional  Theory: a set of sentences which are always true in the language (facts)  Model: the set of true facts in the language describing the mental model (the part of the world observed), in agreement with the theory MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

23. Theory A theory T is set of facts:  A fact written in the language L defines a piece of knowledge (something true) about the domain D  A theory can be seen as a set of constraints on possible models to filter out all undesired ones MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC 23

24. 24 Data and Knowledge  Knowledge is factual information about what is true in general (axioms and theorems) e.g. singers sing songs  Data is factual information about specific individuals (observed knowledge) e.g. Michael Jackson is a singer A finite theory T is called:  An ontology if it contains knowledge only  A knowledge base (KB) if it contains knowledge and data  A database (DB) if it only contains data.  A database + its schema is the simplest kind of knowledge base NOTE: Sometimes the terms Ontology and KB are used interchangeably MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

25. 25 Model A model M is an abstract (in mathematical sense) representation of the intended truths via interpretation I of the language L e.g. Madonna is a singer, Sting is a singer, … M ⊨ T (M entails T) iff M ⊨ A, for each formula A in T  A model M of a theory T is any interpretation function that satisfies all the facts in T (M satisfies T)  There can be many models satisfying the theory T. They are a subset of all possible interpretation functions over L.  In case there are no models for T, we say that the theory T is unsatisfiable. MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

26. 26 Usages of Representation Languages The two purposes in modeling  Specification :  Representation of the problem at the proper level of abstraction  Allow informal/formal syntax and informal/formal semantics  Automation (Automated Reasoning)  Computing consequences or properties of the chosen specifications  It requires formal semantics.  Logics have formal syntax and formal semantics! MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

27. 27 Why Natural Languages? Used forAdvantagesDisadvantages For informal specification Often used at the very beginning of problem solving, when we need a direct, “flexible”, well- understood language and the problem is still largely unclear Useful to interact with users Semantics is informal, largely ambiguous Pragmatically inefficient for automation MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

28. 28 Why Diagrams? Used forAdvantagesDisadvantages To provide more structured and organized specification than natural languages Informal/formal syntax (depends on the kind of diagram) Largely structured and organized; usually used in representation with unified languages when things are non-trivial or more precision is required w.r.t. Natural Language Useful to interact with users Semantics is informal, largely ambiguous Pragmatically inefficient for automation MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

29. 29 Why Logic? Used forAdvantagesDisadvantages Formal specification Automation Well-understood with formal syntax and formal semantics: we can better specify and prove correctness Pragmatically efficient for automation exploiting the explicitly codified semantics: r easoning services It can be hardly used to interact with users An exponential grow in cost (computational, man power) MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

30. 30 Logics for Automation: reasoning  Logics provides a notion of deduction  axioms, deductive machinery, theorem  Deduction can be used to implement reasoners  Reasoners allow inferring conclusions from known facts (i.e., a set of “premises”, premises can be axioms or theorems).  From implicit knowledge to explicit knowledge  Reasoning services:  Model Checking (EVAL) Is a sentence ψ true in model M?  Satisfiability (SAT) Is there a model M where ψ is true?  Validity (VAL) Is ψ true according to all possible models?  Entailment (ENT) ψ 1 true implies ψ 2 true (in all models) MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

31. How to use logical modeling in practice 31 1. Define a logic  most often by reseachers  once for all (not a trivial task!) 2. Choose the right logic for the problem  Given a problem the computer scientist must choose the right logic, most often one of the many available 3. Write the theory  The computer scientist writes a theory T 4. Use reasoning services  Computer scientists use reasoning services to solve their programs MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

32. 32 An Important Trade-Off  There is a trade-off between:  expressive power (expressiveness) and  computational efficiency provided by a (logical) language  This trade-off is a measure of the tension between specification and automation  To use logic for modeling, the modeler must find the right trade off between expressiveness in the language for more tractable forms of reasoning services. MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

33. 33 Examples of Expressiveness LANGUAGENL SENTENCEFORMULA Propositional logic Fausto likes skiing I like skiing Fausto-likes-skiing I-like-skiing Modal logic I believe I like skiingB(I-like-skiing) First-order logic Every person likes skiing I like skiing Fausto likes skiing ∀ person.like-skiing(person) like-skiing(I) like-skiing(Fausto) Description Logic Every person likes cars person ⊑ ∃ likes.Car … MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

34. 34 Efficiency VS. Complexity  Efficiency  Performing in the best possible manner; satisfactory and economical to use [Webster]  In modeling it applies to reasoning  In time, space, consumption of resources  Complexity (or computational complexity) of reasoning  The difficulty to compute a reasoning task expressed by using a logic  With degrees of expressiveness, we may classify the logical languages according to some “degrees of complexity” NOTE: When logic is used we always pay a performance price and therefore we use it when it is cost-effective MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

35. 35 Decidability  The existence of an effective method to determine the validity of formulas in a logical language  A logic is decidable if there is an effective method to determine whether arbitrary formulas are included in a theory  A decision procedure is an algorithm that, given a decision problem, terminates with the correct yes/no answer.  In this course we focus on logics that are expressive enough to model real problems but are still decidable MODELING :: LOGICAL MODELING :: LANGUAGES :: LOGIC :: USING LOGIC

36. 36 Appendix: Greek letters Αα Alpha Νν Nu Ββ Beta Ξξ Xi Γγ Gamma Οο Omicron Δδ Delta Ππ Pi Εε Epsilon Ρρ Rho Ζζ Zeta Σσς Sigma Ηη Eta Ττ Tau Θθ Theta Υυ Upsilon Ιι Iota Φφ Phi Κκ Kappa Χχ Chi Λλ Lamdba Ψψ Psi Μμ Mu Ωω Omega