2. Chapter 28 Reading Quiz
Which kingdom is the most diverse of all eukaryotes?
In which kingdom do algae belong?
Through what process is it proposed that mitochondria & chloroplasts came to reside within larger cells?
Plasmodium causes what (at this time) incurable disease?
The suffix “-phyta” refers to what main type of protist?

3. 1. List the characteristics of protists.
They are the earliest eukaryotes  showed up a billion years before the others
Age  2.1 billion years
There are 60,000 living species
Exist as unicellular, colonial, and multicellular
Aerobic, cilia & flagella, asexual or sexual
Bottom line: a VERY diverse group 

5. 2. Explain why some biologists prefer to use the term undulipodia for eukaryotic flagella and cilia.
Because they appear to “undulate” or wave while acting like feet or “podia” 

6. Specialization of the plasma membrane invagination
3. Briefly summarize and compare the two major models of eukaryotic origins, the autogenous hypothesis and the endosymbiotic hypothesis.
Specialization of the plasma membrane invagination
 gave rise to the nuclear envelope, the ER, the Golgi apparatus, etc…
Endosymbiotic associations may have resulted in organelles
 mitochondria, chloroplasts, etc… 

8. Secondary endosymbiosis

10. 4. Provide three major lines of evidence for the endosymbiotic hypothesis.
Similarities between organelles and prokaryotes
Molecular systematics lends support  rRNA of chloroplasts is more similar in base sequence to RNA from certain eubacteria than rRNA in eukaryotic cytoplasm
9 + 2 flagella and cilia are analogous to prokaryotes 

12. 5. Explain why modern biologists recommend expanding the original boundaries of the Kingdom Protista.
Observation that the Kingdom Protista is polyphyletic
Current research groups protists into FIVE candidate Kingdoms 

13. 6. Explain what is meant by the statement that the Kingdom Protista is a polyphyletic group.
Polyphyletic = ancestry from several possible sources or directions
Example:
Protists are  animal-like
plant-like
fungus-like 

15. 7. List five candidate kingdoms of protists and describe a major feature of each.
Archaezoa  lack mitochondria
Euglenozoa  are both autotrophic and heterotrophic flagellates
Alveolata  have subsurface cavities (alveoli)
Stramenopila  diatoms, golden brown algae, and water molds
Rhodophyta  red algae; lack flagella 

16. 8. Describe amoeboid movement.
Amoebas move in a characteristic motion
use “pseudopodia”  form as cellular extensions and function in feeding and movement
The cytoskeleton of microtubules and microfilaments functions in this amoeboid movement 

18. 9. Outline the life cycle of Plasmodium.
It is the protist that causes malaria
The Anopheles mosquitos serve as the intermediate host and humans are the final host
The Plasmodium spends most of its life in blood or liver cells 

20. 10. Indicate the organism that causes African sleeping sickness and explain how it spread and why it is difficult to control.
It is a species of Trypanosoma that causes the disease and are spread by the bite of the tsetse fly
It belongs in the candidate Kingdom Euglenozoa, in the group Kinetoplastids 

22. 11. Describe the function of contractile vacuoles in freshwater climates.
Contractile vacuoles allow freshwater protists to:
1. Maintain water balance and homeostasis
2. Expel accumulated water from osmosis
3. Sometimes helps propel protists 

23. 12. Distinguish between macronuclei and micronuclei.
Macronuclei  large, over 50 copies of genome
- controls everyday functions of the cell by synthesizing RNA
- necessary for asexual reproduction during binary fission
Micronuclei  small, about 1 – 80 of these
- no function in growth, maintenance, or asexual reproduction
- functions only in conjugation (sexual genetic variation) 

24. 13. Using diagrams, describe conjugation in Paramecium caudatum.
Page 559 in your book
Two paramecium have diploid micronuclei which go through meiosis to create haploid micronuclei
Through syngamy, the two paramecium exchange a couple haploid micronuclei, and these fuse to become a new, varied, diploid micronucleus
The new diploid micronuclei may also then follow the cycle and exchange with another paramecium throughout it’s life cycle 

27. 14. Explain how accessory pigments can be used to classify algae and determine phylogenetic relationships among divisions.
Diatoms  brown plastids cause brown/yellow color
Golden algae  yellow and brown carotenoids and xanthophyll
Brown algae  chlorophyll a, c and the carotenoid fucoxanthin
Red algae  chlorophyll a, carotenoids, phycobilins, and chlorophyll d
- color is due to accessory pigment phycoerythrin 

29. 15. In a chart, distinguish among the following algal groups based on their pigments, cell wall components, storage products, reproduction, number and position of flagella, and habitat: a. Dinoflagellata b. Bacillariophyta c. Chrysophyta d. Phaeophyta

30. 16. Describe three possible evolutionary trends that led to multicellularity in the Chlorophyta.
Formation of colonies of individual cells
ex: Volvox
Repeated division of nuclei with no cytoplasmic division (mitosis without cytokinesis
ex: Caulerpa
Formation of true multicellular forms
ex: Ulva 

31. volvox

32. caulerpa

33. Life Cycle overview
Sporophyte  generally the adult form of an organism; exists as a diploid (2n); makes spores (ex: humans)
Gametophyte  generally an intermediate step before fertilization; exists as a haploid (n); makes gametes (ex: sperm & eggs) 

34. 17. Outline the life cycles of Chlamydomonas, Ulva, and Laminaria and indicate whether the stages are haploid or diploid.
Chlamydomonas  at maturity it is a single haploid cell
- asexual at first, then sexual only if stressed, creating a diploid zygote
2. Ulva  diploid sporophyte and haploid gametophyte
3. Laminaria  sporophyte (2n) with sporangia makes zoospores (n) which make gametes (n) and then fertilization to get diploid sporophyte again 

36. 18. Distinguish between isogamy and oogamy; sporophyte and gametophyte; and isomorphic and heteromorphic generations.
Isogamy  when gametes are morphologically indistinguishable
Oogamy  flagellated sperm fertilize the nonmotile egg
Sporophyte  2n (diploid) generation
Gametophyte  n (haploid) generation
Isomorphic  gametophytes and sporophytes look alike
Heteromorphic  gametophytes and sporophytes are structurally different 

37. 19. Compare the life cycles of plasmodial and cellular slime molds and describe the major differences between them.
Plasmodial Slime Mold
Multinucleated mass
Diploid nuclei
When stressed will form sexual reproductive structures called sporangia 
Cellular Slime Mold
Solitary haploid cells
Cells will aggregate when food supply is low
Fruiting bodies (sporangia) function in asexual reproduction 

40. 20. Provide evidence that the oomycetes are not closely related to true fungi.
Have coenocytic (multinucleated) hyphae (branching filaments) that are analogous to fungal hyphae
Cell walls are made of cellulose rather than the chitin in true fungi
Have biflagellated cells  fungi lack flagellated cells 

41. 21. Give examples of oomycetes and describe their economic importance.
Water molds  grow on injured tissue but also will grow on the skin and gills of fish
White rusts
Downy mildews
- both of these are parasitic on terrestrial plants – act as pathogens 

43. 22. Explain the most widely accepted hypothesis for the evolution of multicellularity.
Multicellularity arose from unicellular ancestors as colonies or loose aggregates of interconnected cells
This involved cellular specialization and division of labor among the cells
The End 