1. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chapter 51: Animal Behavior

2. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Humans have probably studied animal behavior for as long as we have lived on Earth As hunters knowledge of animal behavior was essential to human survival

3. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cranes are birds that have captivated people’s interest – Possibly because they are large and their behavior is easily observed Figure 51.1

4. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings What Is Behavior? What an animal does and how it does it Includes muscular and nonmuscular activity Figure 51.2 Dorsal fin Anal fin

5. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Learning – considered a behavioral process

6. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Proximate, or “how,” questions – Focus on the environmental stimuli that trigger a behavior – Focus on the genetic, physiological, and anatomical mechanisms underlying behavior

7. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ultimate, or “why,” questions about behavior – Address the evolutionary significance of a behavior

8. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Ethology: Scientific study of animal behavior

9. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fixed Action Patterns (FAP) Sequence of unlearned, innate behaviors that is unchangeable Once initiated, is usually carried to completion Triggered by an external sensory stimulus – (sign stimulus)

10. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings In male stickleback fish, the stimulus for attack behavior – Is the red underside of an intruder Figure 51.3a (a) A male three-spined stickleback fish shows its red underside.

11. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings As long as some red is present in a model, the attack behavior occurs Figure 51.3b The realistic model at the top, without a red underside, produces no aggressive response in a male three-spined stickleback fish. The other models, with red undersides, produce strong responses. (b) The realistic model at the top, without a red underside, produces no aggressive response in a male three-spined stickleback fish. The other models, with red undersides, produce strong responses.

12. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Proximate and ultimate causes for the FAP attack behavior in male stickleback fish Figure 51.4 ULTIMATE CAUSE: By chasing away other male sticklebacks, a male decreases the chance that eggs laid in his nesting territory will be fertilized by another male. BEHAVIOR: A male stickleback fish attacks other male sticklebacks that invade its nesting territory. PROXIMATE CAUSE: The red belly of the intruding male acts as a sign stimulus that releases aggression in a male stickleback.

13. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Imprinting Behavior with both learning and innate components and is generally irreversible Sensitive period – limited phase that is only time when certain behaviors can be learned

14. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Konrad Lorenz showed that – When baby geese spent the first few hours of their life with him, they imprinted on him as their parent

15. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings There are proximate and ultimate causes for this type of behavior Figure 51.5 BEHAVIOR: Young geese follow and imprint on their mother. PROXIMATE CAUSE: During an early, critical developmental stage, the young geese observe their mother moving away from them and calling. ULTIMATE CAUSE: On average, geese that follow and imprint on their mother receive more care and learn necessary skills, and thus have a greater chance of surviving than those that do not follow their mother.

16. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Program to save the whooping crane from extinction Figure 51.6

17. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Biologists study the ways both genes and the environment – Both influence the development Behavior that is developmentally fixed is called innate behavior, under strong genetic influence

18. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Kinesis Simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimulus

19. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Sow bugs – Become more active in dry areas and less active in humid areas Figure 51.7a Dry open area Moist site under leaf (a) Kinesis increases the chance that a sow bug will encounter and stay in a moist environment.

20. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Taxis Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from a stimulus

21. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fish exhibit positive rheotaxis – automatically swim in an upstream direction Figure 51.7b Direction of river current (b) Positive rheotaxis keeps trout facing into the current, the direction from which most food comes.

22. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Migration Genetically programmed Figure 51.8

23. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Animal Signals and Communication Signal  behavior that causes a change in another animal’s behavior Communication  reception of and response to signals

24. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Animals communicate using – Visual, auditory, chemical, tactile, and electrical signals

25. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chemical Communication Pheromones

26. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings When a minnow or catfish is injured – An alarm substance in the fish’s skin disperses in the water, inducing a fright response among fish in the area Figure 51.9a, b (a) Minnows are widely dispersed in an aquarium before an alarm substance is introduced. (b) Within seconds of the alarm substance being introduced, minnows aggregate near the bottom of the aquarium and reduce their movement.

27. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Auditory Communication Insect courtship songs (under genetic control) Charles Henry, Lucía Martínez, and ent Holsinger crossed males and females of Chrysoperla plorabunda and Chrysoperla johnsoni, two morphologically identical species of lacewings that sing different courtship songs. EXPERIMENT SONOGRAMS Chrysoperla plorabunda parent Vibration volleys Standard repeating unit Chrysoperla johnsoni parent Volley period crossed with Standard repeating unit The researchers recorded and compared the songs of the male and female parents with those of the hybrid offspring that had been raised in isolation from other lacewings. Volley period

28. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Learning Modification of behavior based on specific experiences

29. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Habituation Loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little or no information

30. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Spatial Learning Modification of behavior based on experience with the spatial structure of the environment

31. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classic experiment – Showed how digger wasps use landmarks to find the entrances to their nests After the mother visited the nest and flew away, Tinbergen moved the pinecones a few feet to one side of the nest. Figure 51.14 CONCLUSION A female digger wasp excavates and cares for four or five separate underground nests, flying to each nest daily with food for the single larva in the nest. To test his hypothesis that the wasp uses visual landmarks to locate the nests, Niko Tinbergen marked one nest with a ring of pinecones. EXPERIMENT Nest When the wasp returned, she flew to the center of the pinecone circle instead of to the nearby nest. Repeating the experiment with many wasps, Tinbergen obtained the same results. RESULTS The experiment supported the hypothesis that digger wasps use landmarks to keep track of their nests. Nest No Nest

32. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classical conditioning – Arbitrary stimulus is associated with a reward or punishment Figure 51.15 Before stimulus Influx of water alone Influx of alarm substances Influx of pike odor Day 1 Day 3 Control group Experimental group Relative activity level

33. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Classical conditioning

34. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

35. Operant conditioning – Animal learns to associate one of its behaviors with a reward or punishment, trial and error learning Figure 51.16

36. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cognition and Problem Solving Perceive, store, process, and use information gathered by sensory receptors

37. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Problem solving can be learned – By observing the behavior of other animals Figure 51.17

38. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Variation in Prey Selection Due to prey availability and are evidence of behavioral evolution Figure 51.18a, b (a) A garter snake (Thamnophis elegans) (b) A banana slug (Ariolimus californicus); not to scale

39. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Variation in Aggressive Behavior Funnel spiders living in different habitats – Exhibit differing degrees of aggressiveness in defense and foraging behavior Figure 51.19 50 40 30 20 10 0 Time to attack (seconds) Field Lab-raised generation 1 Lab-raised generation 2 Desert grassland population Riparian population 60 Population

40. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Migratory orientation of wintering adult birds captured in Britain Evolution of behavior Figure 51.21b (b) Wintering blackcaps captured in Britain and their laboratory-raised offspring had a migratory orientation toward the west, while young birds from Germany were oriented toward the southwest. N E S W Adults from Britain and F 1 offspring of British adults N E S W Young from SW Germany Mediterranean Sea BRITAIN GERMANY

41. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Natural selection favors behaviors that increase survival and reproductive success

42. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Foraging Behavior Optimal foraging theory – Views foraging behavior as a compromise between the benefits of nutrition and the costs of obtaining food

43. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Bluegill sunfish – Prey selection behavior is related to prey density Figure 51.23 Low prey densityHigh prey density 33% 32.5% 35% 2% 40% 57% 100% 50% 35% 14% 33% Small prey Medium prey Large prey Small prey Medium prey Large prey Small prey Medium prey Large prey Percentage available Predicted percentage in diet Observed percentage in diet Large prey at far distance Small prey at middle distance Small prey at close distance

44. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mating Behavior and Mate Choice Product of a form of natural selection call sexual selection

45. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Species w/ large numbers of offspring – Parental care carried out by males or females Figure 51.26 Eggs

46. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mate Choice by Females e.g. Male zebra finches more ornate than females, affects mate choice by the females Figure 51.27

47. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Male comp. for mates – often ritualized contest Figure 51.30

48. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Many social behaviors are selfish Natural selection favors behavior – That maximizes an individual’s survival and reproduction

49. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Altruism Behavior that reduces an individuals fitness but increase the fitness of others

50. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Naked mole rat populations – Nonreproductive individuals may sacrifice their lives protecting the reproductive individuals from predators Figure 51.33

51. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 3 variables in an altruistic act are – The benefit to the recipient – The cost to the altruist – The coefficient of relatedness

52. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Reciprocal Altruism Altruistic behavior toward unrelated individuals, aided individual returns the favor in the future

53. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Kin Selection Inclusive fitness, behavior that favors reproductive success of relatives Explains altruistic behavior between related individuals

54. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Social Learning of Alarm Calls Infant monkeys give undiscriminating alarm calls at first – But learn to fine-tune them by the time they are adults Figure 51.37

55. Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings No other species – Comes close to matching the social learning and cultural transmission that occurs among humans Figure 51.38