0. POWER AND POLITICS
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

1. A Definition of Power Power Dependency
The capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes
Exists as a potential or fully actualized influence over a dependent relationship
Dependency
B’s relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires
The greater B's dependence, the more power A has

2. Contrasting Leadership and Power
Focuses on goal achievement
Requires goal compatibility with followers
Focuses influence downward
Used as a means for achieving goals
Requires follower dependency
Used to gain lateral and upward influence

3. Bases of Power: Formal Power
Established by an individual’s position in an organization
Three bases:
Coercive Power
A power base dependent on fear of negative results
Reward Power
Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable
Legitimate Power
The formal authority to control and use resources based on a person’s position in the formal hierarchy

4. Bases of Power: Personal Power
Power that comes from an individual’s unique characteristics – these are the most effective
Expert Power
Influence based on special skills or knowledge
Referent Power
Influence based on possession by an individual of desirable resources or personal traits

5. Dependency: The Key to Power
The General Dependency Postulate
The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B
Possession/control of scarce organizational resources that others need makes a manager powerful
Access to optional resources (e.g., multiple suppliers) reduces the resource holder’s power
Dependency increases when resources are:
Important
Scarce
Nonsubstitutable

6. Power Tactics Power Tactics
Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions
Nine influence tactics:
Legitimacy
Rational persuasion(influence)*
Inspirational appeals*
Consultation (Advisory)*
Exchange
Personal appeals
Ingratiation (make someone love smb)
Pressure
Coalitions
* Most effective
(Pressure is the least effective)

7. Preferred Power Tactics by Influence Direction
Upward Influence
Downward Influence
Lateral Influence
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Consultation
Pressure
Ingratiation
Exchange
Legitimacy
Personal appeals
Coalitions

8. Factors Influencing Power Tactics
Choice and effectiveness of influence tactics are moderated by:
Sequencing of tactics
Softer to harder tactics work best
Political skill of the user
The culture of the organization
Culture affects user’s choice of tactic

9. Sexual Harassment: A Case of Unequal Power
Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individual’s employment and creates a hostile work environment
Overt actions, like unwanted touching, are relatively easy to spot
Subtle actions, like jokes or looks, can cross over the line into harassment
Sexual harassment isn’t about sex: it is about abusing an unequal power relationship
Harassment can damage the well-being of the individual, work group, and organization

10. Managerial Actions to Prevent Sexual Harassment
Make sure a policy against it is in place.
Ensure that employees will not encounter retaliation if they file a complaint.
Investigate every complaint and include the human resource and legal departments.
Make sure offenders are disciplined or terminated.
Set up in-house seminars and training.

11. Politics: Power in Action
Political Behavior
Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the organization
Legitimate Political Behavior
Normal everyday politics - complaining, bypassing, obstructing
Illegitimate Political Behavior
Extreme political behavior that violates the implied rules of the game: sabotage, whistle-blowing, and symbolic protest

12. The Reality of Politics
Politics is a natural result of resource scarcity
Limited resources lead to competition and political behaviors
Judgments on quality differ markedly based on the observer’s perception
“Blaming others” or “fixing responsibility”
“Covering your rear” or “documenting decisions”
“Perfectionist” or “attentive to detail”
Most decisions are made under ambiguous conditions
Lack of an objective standard encourages political maneuvering of subjective reality
E X H I B I T 14-3

13. Causes and Consequences of Political Behavior
Factors that Influence Political Behavior
E X H I B I T 14-4

14. Employee Responses to Organizational Politics
Most employees have low to modest willingness to play politics and have the following reactions to politics:
E X H I B I T 14-5

15. Defensive Behaviors
Employees who perceive politics as a threat have defensive reactions
May be helpful in the short run, dangerous in the long run
Types of defensive behaviors
Avoiding Action
Overconforming, buck passing, playing dumb, stalling
Avoiding Blame
Bluffing, playing safe, justifying, scapegoating
Avoiding Change
Prevention, self-protection
E X H I B I T 14-6

16. Impression Management (IM)
The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them
IM Techniques
Conformity
Excuses
Apologies
Self-Promotion
Flattery (Sweet Talk)
Favors
Association (Friendship)

17. IM Effectiveness Job Interview Success Performance Evaluations
IM does work and most people use it
Self-promotion techniques are important
Ingratiation is of secondary importance
Performance Evaluations
Ingratiation is positively related to ratings
Self-promotion tends to backfire

18. The Ethics of Behaving Politically
It is difficult to tell ethical from unethical politicking
Three questions help:
What is the utility of engaging in the behavior?
Does the utility balance out any harm done by the action?
Does the action conform to standards of equity and justice?
Answers can be skewed toward either viewpoint

19. What Is Control?
Controlling is the process of monitoring, comparing, and correcting work performance.
The Purpose of Control
To ensure that activities are completed in ways that lead to the accomplishment of organizational goals.

20. Why Is Control Important?
As the final link in management functions:
Planning
Controls let managers know whether their goals and plans are on target and what future actions to take.
Empowering employees
Control systems provide managers with information and feedback on employee performance.
Protecting the workplace
Controls enhance physical security and help minimize workplace disruptions.

21. Exhibit 18-1: Planning-Controlling Link
As the final step in the management process, controlling provides the critical link back to planning (see Exhibit 18-1). If managers didn’t control, they’d have no way of knowing whether their goals and plans were being achieved and what future actions to take.

22. The Control Process The Process of Control
Measuring actual performance
Comparing actual performance against a standard
Taking action to correct deviations or inadequate standards

23. The Control Process
The control process is a three-step process of measuring actual performance, comparing actual performance against a standard, and taking managerial action to correct deviations or to address inadequate standards. (See Exhibit 18-2.)

24. Sources of Information for Measuring Performance
Four approaches used by managers to measure and report actual performance are personal observations, statistical reports, oral reports, and written reports. Exhibit 18-3 summarizes the advantages and drawbacks of each approach. Most managers use a combination of these approaches.

25. Taking Managerial Action
Immediate corrective action - corrective action that corrects problems at once in order to get performance back on track.
Basic corrective action - corrective action that looks at how and why performance deviated before correcting the source of deviation.

26. What Is Organizational Performance?
Performance - the end result of an activity.
Organizational performance - the accumulated results of all the organization’s work activities.

27. Measures of Organizational Performance
Productivity - the amount of goods or services produced divided by the inputs needed to generate that output.
Organizational effectiveness - a measure of how appropriate organizational goals are and how well those goals are being met.

28. Types of Control
Feed forward control - control that takes place before a work activity is done.
Concurrent control - control that takes place while a work activity is in progress.

29. Types of Control (cont.)
Management by walking around - a term used to describe when a manager is out in the work area interacting directly with employees.
Feedback control - control that takes place after a work activity is done.

30. Exhibit 18-8: Types of Control
Managers can implement controls before an activity begins, during the time the activity is going on, and after the activity has been completed. The first type is called feedforward control; the second, concurrent control; and the last, feedback control (see Exhibit 18-8).

31. Information Controls
Management information system (MIS) - a system used to provide management with needed information on a regular basis.
Data - an unorganized collection of raw, unanalyzed facts (e.g., an unsorted list of customer names).
Information - data that has been analyzed and organized such that it has value and relevance to managers.
A management information system (MIS) is a system used to provide managers
with needed information on a regular basis. In theory, this system can be manual or computer-
based, although most organizations have moved to computer-supported applications.
The term system in MIS implies order, arrangement, and purpose. Further, an MIS focuses
specifically on providing managers with information (processed and analyzed data), not
merely data (raw, unanalyzed facts). A library provides a good analogy. Although it can
contain millions of volumes, a library doesn’t do you any good if you can’t find what you
want quickly. That’s why librarians spend a great deal of time cataloging a library’s collections
and ensuring that materials are returned to their proper locations. Organizations today
are like well-stocked libraries. The issue is not a lack of data; instead, the issue is whether
an organization has the ability to process that data so that the right information is available
to the right person when he or she needs.