1. MURI-OPUS: http://www.mit.ucf.edu/ OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM INFLUENCE ON STRESS AS A FUNCTION OF TASKS J.M. Ross, J.L. Szalma, and P.A. Hancock University of Central Florida Orlando, Florida

2. 2 of 51 Outline Stress Effects on Human Performance Stress Effects on Human Performance Role of Individual Differences Role of Individual Differences Current Experimental Design & Results Current Experimental Design & Results

3. 3 of 51 Trinity of Stress Stress Signature (Deterministic) Compensatory Processes (Nomothetic) Goal-Directed Behavior (Idiographic)

4. 4 of 51 Stress Effects Physiological Changes Physiological Changes Quickened heartbeat, labored breathing, and trembling (Rachman, 1983). Quickened heartbeat, labored breathing, and trembling (Rachman, 1983). Emotional Reactions Emotional Reactions Fear, anxiety, & frustration (Driskell & Salas, 1991) Fear, anxiety, & frustration (Driskell & Salas, 1991) Motivational losses (Innes & Allnutt, 1967) Motivational losses (Innes & Allnutt, 1967) Cognitive Effects Cognitive Effects Narrowed attention (Combs & Taylor, 1952; Easterbrook, 1959) Narrowed attention (Combs & Taylor, 1952; Easterbrook, 1959) Decreased search behavior (Streufert & Streufert, 1981) Decreased search behavior (Streufert & Streufert, 1981) Longer reaction time to peripheral cues and decreased vigilance (Wachtel, 1968) Longer reaction time to peripheral cues and decreased vigilance (Wachtel, 1968) Degraded problem solving (Yamamoto, 1984) Degraded problem solving (Yamamoto, 1984) Performance rigidity (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981) Performance rigidity (Staw, Sandelands, & Dutton, 1981) Changes In Social Behavior Changes In Social Behavior Loss of team perspective (Driskell, Salas, & Johnston, 1997) Loss of team perspective (Driskell, Salas, & Johnston, 1997) Decrease in prosocial behaviors (Mathews & Canon, 1975). Decrease in prosocial behaviors (Mathews & Canon, 1975).

5. 5 of 51 Hancock and Warm Theory

6. 6 of 51 Maximal Adaptability Model Hancock and Warm (1989) Recognition of task as a proximal stressor Recognition of task as a proximal stressor Two fundamental task dimensions. Two fundamental task dimensions. Information structure – often expressed spatially. Information structure – often expressed spatially. Information rate – the temporal characteristics of the task. Information rate – the temporal characteristics of the task.

7. 7 of 51 INFORMATION RATE INFORMATION STRUCTURE

8. 8 of 29 Distortion of Space-Time Under StressStress Perceived Time Sidereal Time Hancock & Weaver (in press)

9. 9 of 29 What is the Common Mechanism? One Possibility: Common Resource Capacity Narrowing occurs as a result of diminishing resources

10. 10 of 29 Role of Individual Differences

11. 11 of 29 Individual Differences in Stress Response Goal-Directed Behavior (Idiographic)

12. 12 of 29 Dispositional Optimism Optimists score higher on internal locus of control and self-esteem, and lower on measures of hopelessness, perceived stress, and social anxiety (Carver, Blaney, & Scheier, 1979). Positive correlation with Active Coping, and negatively correlated with focus on emotion and disengagement from the goal (Scheier & Carver, 1985). Pollyanna Principle (Martin & Stang, 1978)

13. 13 of 29 Pollyanna Principle Optimistic Characteristics –Overestimating the size of valued items. –Reporting good news more frequently than bad. –Thinking more pleasant than unpleasant thoughts. –Putting positive before negative items. –Rating themselves and others as better than average in almost every respect. Adaptive because allows individual to become aware of threatening implications in a gradual, manageable fashion at a time when the ego is weakened and vulnerable.

14. 14 of 29 Pessimism Performance impairment (sometimes; Helton, Dember, Warm, & Matthews, 1999) Increased Stress Symptoms (Helton et al., 1999; Szalma, 2002) Maladaptive coping strategies (Scheier & Carver, 1987; Szalma, 2002) Effects may depend on task characteristics (Thropp, Szalma, Ross & Hancock, 2003)

15. 15 of 29 Traits and Resource Sharing

16. 16 of 29 Hypotheses 1.Individuals high in optimism (low on pessimism) would exhibit less stress symptoms than those low in optimism (high in pessimism) 2.These differences should be greater under more demanding task conditions: combination of spatial and temporal characteristics 3.Trait effects should be greater when an external stressor is applied (white noise)

17. 17 of 51 Experimental Design Participants N=46 (23 females, 23 males) Age 23.3 years (SD=4.2) Stress 85 decibels on the A weighted scale Intermittent white noise Tasks Spatial Task Temporal Task Combined (Spatial/Temporal) Task Analysis 2 (noise) by 3 (task) Mixed ANOVA Within participant on task. Between participant on noise.

18. 18 of 51 Experimental Tasks Spatial TaskTemporal Task Combined Task

19. 19 of 51 Short Duration and Short Length Line Target

20. 20 of 51Instructions Task 2 OPI Pre- DSSQ Post- DSSQ Task 1 StartEnd Task 3 Optimism/Pessimism Inventory (OPI): Optimism/Pessimism Inventory (OPI): Pessimism/Optimism measured as separate scales (partially independent constructs; see Dember, Martin, Hummer, Howe, & Melton, 1989) Pessimism/Optimism measured as separate scales (partially independent constructs; see Dember, Martin, Hummer, Howe, & Melton, 1989) DSSQ: DSSQ: Pre-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task Distress (Matthews et al., 1999) Pre-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task Distress (Matthews et al., 1999) Post-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task Distress Post-Task Engagement, Pre-Task Worry, Pre-Task Distress Questionnaires and Procedure 7 Minutes

21. 21 of 29 Dispositional Effects on Performance Disposition did not predict performance –Agrees With Szalma (2002) Thropp et al. last years HFES (2003) –Disagrees With Helton et al. (1999) Neither Pessimism or Optimism interacted with noise to influence performance or self-reports of stress (May use general stress prefer noise) –Agrees With Thropp et al. (2003) Also mention if dif task (e.g., swimming) –Disagrees With

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23. 23 of 29 Disposition and Subjective Stress Measures Optimism –Task Engagement In the spatial task, optimism predicted less post Task Engagement (R 2 =.35; ∆R 2 =.08, p<.05) –Worry –Distress Pessimism

24. 24 of 29 Post-Task Engagement as a Function of Optimism TE = -0.05Opt + 2.44 -2 -1.5 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 18243036424854606672 Optimism Post-task Engagement Spatial-Dominant Task

25. 25 of 29 Task Engagement Distress Worry Pre-State Measure Correlations * Correlation at the 0.05 level ** Correlation at the 0.01 level * ** * *

26. 26 of 29 Conclusions Performance effects –d prime values range 1.05-1.09 –White noise did not interact with either trait Optimism may exert a greater influence on stress response than previous experiments indicated

27. 27 of 29 Optimism Conclusions This effect is task dependent –Effects of optimism/pessimism on stress state was not exacerbated by the combination of spatial/temporal demands Effects vary across dimensions of stress- state The stress-trait relation varied depending on task dimension emphasized (spatial, temporal)

28. 28 of 29 References Carver, C.S., Blaney, P.H., & Scheier, M.F. (1979). Reassertation and giving up: The interactive role of self- directed attention and outcome expectancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1859-1870. Martin, M.W., & Stang, D.J. (1978). The Pollyanna principle. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman. Scheier, M.F. & Carver, C.S. (1985). Optimism, coping, and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health Psychology, 4(3), 219- 247. Add rest of references!

29. 29 of 29 Acknowledgement This research was supported by a Multidisciplinary University Research Initiative (MURI) program grant from the Army Research Office, Dr. Elmar Schmeisser, Technical Monitor (Grant# DAAD19-01-1-0621). The research was facilitated by a DARPA-funded program under Grant NBCH1030012, CMDR Dylan Schmorrow, Technical Monitor. The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of the Department of the Army, Department of Defense, or the US Government.