1. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Memory Chapter 10

2. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 2 Chapter Outline Reconstructing the pastReconstructing the past Memory and the power of suggestionMemory and the power of suggestion In pursuit of memoryIn pursuit of memory The three-box model of memoryThe three-box model of memory The biology of memoryThe biology of memory How we rememberHow we remember Why we forgetWhy we forget Autobiographical memoriesAutobiographical memories

3. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 3 Reconstructing the Past The Manufacture of MemoryThe Manufacture of Memory The Fading FlashbulbThe Fading Flashbulb The Conditions of ConfabulationThe Conditions of Confabulation

4. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 4 The Manufacture of Memory Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve informationMemory is the capacity to retain and retrieve information Memory is a reconstructive processMemory is a reconstructive process Recovering a memory is not playing a videotapeRecovering a memory is not playing a videotape Source amnesiaSource amnesia –The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event

5. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 5 The Fading Flashbulb Some unusual, shocking or tragic events hold a special place in memorySome unusual, shocking or tragic events hold a special place in memory These memories are called Flashbulb memories because the term captures the surprise, illumination & photographic detail that characterize themThese memories are called Flashbulb memories because the term captures the surprise, illumination & photographic detail that characterize them Even flashbulb memories have errorsEven flashbulb memories have errors

6. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 6 The Conditions of Confabulation ConfabulationConfabulation –Confusion of an event that happened to someone else with one that happened to you –Or a belief that you remember something when it never actually happened

7. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 7 Confabulation is most likely when: You have thought or heard about the imagined event many timesYou have thought or heard about the imagined event many times The image of the event contains many detailsThe image of the event contains many details The event is easy to imagineThe event is easy to imagine You focus on emotional reactions to the event rather than on what actually happenedYou focus on emotional reactions to the event rather than on what actually happened

8. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 8 Memory and the Power of Suggestion The eyewitness on trialThe eyewitness on trial Children’s testimonyChildren’s testimony

9. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 9 The Eyewitness on Trial Eyewitnesses are not always reliableEyewitnesses are not always reliable Factors that influence accuracyFactors that influence accuracy –Cross race identification –Question wording Crashed versus hitCrashed versus hit –Misleading information

10. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 10 Children’s Testimony Under what conditions are children more suggestible?Under what conditions are children more suggestible? –Being very young –When interviewers’ expectations are clear –When other children’s memories for events are accessible

11. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 11 Children’s Testimony When asked if a visitor committed acts that had not occurred, few 4-6 year olds said yesWhen asked if a visitor committed acts that had not occurred, few 4-6 year olds said yes –30% of 3-year olds said yes When investigators used techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, most children said yesWhen investigators used techniques taken from real child-abuse investigations, most children said yes Social Pressure, False Allegations

12. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 12 In Pursuit of Memory Measuring memoryMeasuring memory –Explicit memory –Implicit memory Models of memoryModels of memory

13. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 13 Explicit Memory Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of informationConscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of information Assessed through:Assessed through: –Recall The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned materialThe ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously learned material –Recognition The ability to identify previously encountered materialThe ability to identify previously encountered material

14. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 14 Implicit Memory Unconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actionsUnconscious retention in memory, as evidenced by the effect of a previous experience or previously encountered information on current thoughts or actions

15. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 15 Priming A person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of taskA person reads or listens to information and is later tested to see whether the information affects performance on another type of task

16. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 16 Relearning Compares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the materialCompares the time required to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the material Also called the savings methodAlso called the savings method Shows that prior learning makes later learning easierShows that prior learning makes later learning easier

17. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 17 Models of Memory Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) –Model of memory in which knowledge is represented as connections among thousands of interacting processing units, distributed in a vast network, and all operating in parallel

18. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 18 Three-Box Model of Memory

19. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 19 Sensory Memory A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory informationA memory system that momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information Pattern RecognitionPattern Recognition –The identification of a stimulus on the basis of information already contained in long-term memory Information that is not quickly passed to short- term memory is gone foreverInformation that is not quickly passed to short- term memory is gone forever

20. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 20 Short-term Memory A limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary useA limited capacity memory system involved in the retention of information for brief periods; it is also used to hold information retrieved from long-term memory for temporary use Working memoryWorking memory –A memory system which includes STM and mental processes that control retrieval of information from LT memory and interpret that information appropriately for a given task ChunkChunk –Meaningful unit of information which may be composed of smaller units

21. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 21 The Value of Chunking You have 5 seconds to memorize as much as you canYou have 5 seconds to memorize as much as you can Now, draw an empty chess board and reproduce the arrangement of piecesNow, draw an empty chess board and reproduce the arrangement of pieces

22. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 22 Long-Term Memory The memory system involved in the long-term storage of informationThe memory system involved in the long-term storage of information One way information is organized is in semantic categories (i.e., animals)One way information is organized is in semantic categories (i.e., animals)

23. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 23 Conceptual Grid

24. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 24 Types of Long-Term Memories

25. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 25 Contents of Long-Term Memory Procedural memoriesProcedural memories –Memories for performance of actions or skills –“Knowing how” Declarative memoriesDeclarative memories –Memories of facts, rules, concepts, and events; includes semantic and episodic memory –“Knowing that” Examples include semantic and episodic memoriesExamples include semantic and episodic memories

26. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 26 Contents of Long-Term Memory Semantic memoriesSemantic memories –General knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts, and propositions Episodic memoriesEpisodic memories –Personally experienced events and the contexts in which they occurred

27. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 27 Serial-Position Effect The tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the listThe tendency for recall of first and last items on a list to surpass recall of items in the middle of the list

28. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 28 The Biology of Memory Forming a memory involves chemical and structural changes at the level of neuronsForming a memory involves chemical and structural changes at the level of neurons –In short-term memory, changes within neurons temporarily alter the neuron’s ability to release transmitters –In long-term memory, long-term potentiation or a long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness occurs Most researchers believe this is the process underlying learning and memory yet exact biochemical and molecular changes still debatedMost researchers believe this is the process underlying learning and memory yet exact biochemical and molecular changes still debated

29. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 29 Consolidation Neural and synaptic changes take a while to develop fullyNeural and synaptic changes take a while to develop fully The process by which a long-term memory becomes durable and stable is called consolidationThe process by which a long-term memory becomes durable and stable is called consolidation

30. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 30 Brain Areas Involved in Memory

31. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 31 Locating Memories New brain imaging and testing shows us that:New brain imaging and testing shows us that: –During short-term memory tasks, areas of the frontal lobes show activity –During long- term memory tasks, the hippocampus shows activity. –Encoding of pictures and words, prefrontal cortex and areas adjacent to the hippocampus –Procedural memories, specific changes to cerebellum –Formation of long-term memories, cerebral cortex

32. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 32 Hormones and Memory Hormones released by the adrenal glands during stress and emotional arousal enhance memoryHormones released by the adrenal glands during stress and emotional arousal enhance memory Moderate levels are optimal: memory can suffer if animals are given very high doses of adrenal hormonesModerate levels are optimal: memory can suffer if animals are given very high doses of adrenal hormones These may affect memory by stimulating an increase in the level of glucose in the bloodstreamThese may affect memory by stimulating an increase in the level of glucose in the bloodstream

33. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 33 How We Remember Effective EncodingEffective Encoding RehearsalRehearsal MnemonicsMnemonics

34. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 34 Rehearsal Maintenance RehearsalMaintenance Rehearsal –Rote repetition of material in order to maintain its availability in memory Elaborative RehearsalElaborative Rehearsal –Association of new information with already stored knowledge and analysis of the new information to make it memorable

35. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 35 Deep Processing In the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulusIn the encoding of information, the processing of meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of a stimulus

36. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 36 Comparing Encoding Strategies

37. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 37 Mnemonics Strategies and tricks for improving memory, such as the use of a verse or a formulaStrategies and tricks for improving memory, such as the use of a verse or a formula –Examples include: MDASMDAS ROYGBIVROYGBIV Thirty days hath September…Thirty days hath September…

38. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 38 Why We Forget DecayDecay ReplacementReplacement InterferenceInterference Cue-dependent forgettingCue-dependent forgetting Psychogenic amnesiaPsychogenic amnesia

39. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 39 Decay Theory The theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memoryThe theory that information in memory eventually disappears if it is not accessed; it applies more to short-term than to long-term memory

40. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 40 Forgetting Curve Herman Ebbinghaus tested his own memory for nonsense syllablesHerman Ebbinghaus tested his own memory for nonsense syllables Forgetting was rapid at first and then tapered offForgetting was rapid at first and then tapered off

41. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 41 Linton’s Forgetting Curve In contrast to Ebbinghaus, Linton’s memory for personal events was retained over a period of several years and then decreased rapidlyIn contrast to Ebbinghaus, Linton’s memory for personal events was retained over a period of several years and then decreased rapidly

42. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 42 Replacement The theory that new information entering memory can wipe out old informationThe theory that new information entering memory can wipe out old information In one study, researchers showed subjects slides of a traffic accidentIn one study, researchers showed subjects slides of a traffic accident –The experimental group was misled into thinking there was a stop sign instead of a yield sign –Even after being debriefed on the purpose of the study, subjects insisted that they really saw the stop sign (Loftus et al., 1978) –The new information which came from the researchers replaced what the subjects saw

43. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 43 Interference Similar items interfere with one anotherSimilar items interfere with one another –Retroactive Interference Forgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previouslyForgetting that occurs when recently learned material interferes with the ability to remember similar material stored previously –Proactive Interference Forgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned materialForgetting that occurs when previously stored material interferes with the ability to remember similar, more recently learned material

44. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 44 Cue-dependent Forgetting The inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recallThe inability to retrieve information stored in memory because of insufficient cues for recall Physical state can be a memory cuePhysical state can be a memory cue –State-Dependent Memory The tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experienceThe tendency to remember something when the rememberer is in the same physical or mental state as during the original learning or experience

45. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 45 Amnesia The partial or complete loss of memory for important personal informationThe partial or complete loss of memory for important personal information Psychogenic AmnesiaPsychogenic Amnesia –The causes of forgetting are psychological such as the need to escape feelings of embarrassment, guilt, shame, disappointment, emotional shock Traumatic AmnesiaTraumatic Amnesia –The forgetting of specific traumatic events, sometimes for many years

46. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 46 The Repression Controversy RepressionRepression –In psychoanalytic theory, the selective involuntary pushing of threatening or upsetting information into the unconscious Individuals are more likely to struggle with forgetting traumatic eventsIndividuals are more likely to struggle with forgetting traumatic events Hard to distinguish repression from other forms of forgettingHard to distinguish repression from other forms of forgetting

47. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 47 When should we question recovered memories? If person says he or she has memories of first year or two of lifeIf person says he or she has memories of first year or two of life If over time the memories become more and more implausibleIf over time the memories become more and more implausible If therapist used suggestive techniques such as hypnosis, dream analysis, age regression, guided imagery or leading questionsIf therapist used suggestive techniques such as hypnosis, dream analysis, age regression, guided imagery or leading questions

48. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 48 Childhood Amnesia The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of lifeThe inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life Cognitive explanationsCognitive explanations –Lack of sense of self –Impoverished encoding –A focus on the routine –Different ways of thinking about the world