1. P S Y C H O L O G Y T h i r d E d i t i o n by Drew Westen PowerPoint  Presentation C h a p t e r 10 M O T I V A T I O N John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

2. Lecture Outline n Motivational Perspectives n Hunger and Obesity n Sexual Motivation n Need for Achievement © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

3. Motivation n Motivation refers to the moving force that energizes behavior  Direction or goal of motives  Strength of motives n Motives reflect  Biological needs  Psychosocial needs © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4. Evolutionary Perspective n Evolutionary perspective argues that motivational systems can contribute to reproductive success  Evolution selects for animals that maximize their inclusive fitness (their own reproductive success plus that of close relatives) Recall that close relatives share similar genes  Pheromones may serve as a cue to identifying close relatives Crickets spend more time in a territory marked with the scent of a close relative © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

5. Pheromones Guide Behavior © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

6. Psychodynamic Perspective n Freud argued for two fundamental motives:  Sex  Aggression n Subsequent psychodynamic theorists argue for  Need for relatedness to others  Need for self-esteem © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

7. Unconscious Motivation n Freud argued that a person can be unaware of their own motives for their behaviors n Motivation can be unconscious and conscious at the same time n Unconscious motivation can be assessed using projective tests in which a person is asked to describe a vague stimulus  The idea is that their verbal descriptions of the scene will reflect their motivations (ego defense mechanism of projection) © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

8. ProjectiveTests n A subject might be asked:  What is happening in the scene to the right?  What is she thinking now?  What would you be saying if you were the person in the middle? © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

9. Behaviorist Perspective © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. n Behaviors are governed by stimuli in the environment n Needs reflect a requirement such as food and water n Drives are states of arousal that accompany an unfulfilled need  Hunger  Thirst n Drive reduction theory argues that we behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce drives

10. Cognitive Perspective n Goals refer to positive outcomes that are established by social learning  Finding a mate n Goals can be set and persons can monitor their own progress toward the goal  Note that this view of motivation relies on conscious processing rather than unconscious processing  Feedback about progress toward the goal is key to motivating performance © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

11. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

12. Homeostasis n Homeostasis: refers to the tendency of the body to maintain constancy of the internal environment  Core body temperature is defended Increased core temperature leads to sweating Decreased core temperature leads to shivering n Behavior can serve as part of the homeostatic process  Blood sugar levels dip--> we eat  Core body temperature goes up, we take off a layer of clothes and look for iced tea…. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

13. Eating n Food supplies energy as well as minerals and vitamins n Ingestion of food leads to a sequence of metabolic events:  Absorptive phase: food is ingested, energy is extracted and stored as either glycogen or fat  Fasting phase: glycogen is converted to glucose for use by the body n Eating is a behavior © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

14. Overview of Metabolism © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

15. Hypothalamic Regulation of Eating © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. n Hypothalamus receives information regarding nutrient levels in body  Lateral region Stimulation induces eating Lesions of the lateral region produce starvation  Ventromedial region Lesions induce overeating Stimulation inhibits eating

16. Glucostatic Theory of Hunger n Glucostat measures the level of glucose in blood  Periphery: Liver glucoreceptors  Brain: Hypothalamic glucoreceptors n Manipulations of glucose level alters eating  Injections of glucose into blood at the start of a meal will delay the meal  Reducing the level of glucose in blood will intensify hunger © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

17. Impact of Glucose Inhibition on Hunger © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from Thompson & Campbell, 1977)

18. Non-Physiological Factors that Modulate Eating n Food palatability can alter eating  Positive flavors can enhance eating  Aversive flavors can suppress eating Quinine added to food reduces eating n Food variety: exposure to the same food day after day can diminish intake n Presence of others: meal size increases as the group size increases © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

19. Obesity n Obesity is an excess level of fat in the body  Defined as weight that is 15% above ideal n Risks of obesity  Physical Heart disease, diabetes, or stroke Early mortality  Psychological Negative stereotypes about the obese Basis for discrimination in jobs and housing Difficulty in relationships © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

20. Causes of Obesity n Biological  Obesity is heritable (twin studies)  Fat cell size and number may play a role in obesity  Homeostasis: the body defends its level of fat Leptin is secreted by fat cells: reduces appetite and weight Leptin may be the hormone that serves to reduce appetite when body fat level exceeds some threshold n Environmental  Rapid increases in prevalence of obesity suggests environmental causes Diet rich in fat Low levels of exercise Efforts to restrain eating © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

21. Eating Disorders n Western society is obsessed with thinness n Eating disorders are seen in young white females  Anorexia: self-induced starvation leading to loss of 15% or more of body weight (described first in 1689) Cardiovascular issues (low heart rate and blood pressure) Low metabolism Cessation of menstruation  Bulimia: Binge eating followed by purging © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

22. Anorexia Nervosa Mr. Duke’s daughter in St. Mary Axe, in the year 1684, and the Eighteenth year of her Age… fell into a total suppression of her monthly courses from a multitude of Cares and Passions of her mind.. From which time her Appetite began to abate… She wholly neglected to care for herself for two years… (like a skeleton only covered with skin)… Richard Morton (1689) © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

23. Hormones and Sexual Motivation © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. n Organizational effects: prenatal exposure to androgens alters the neural circuits in brain and spinal cord  Adult behavior of androgenized subject is masculine  In the absence of androgens, “Nature’s impulse is to create a female…” n Activational effects: alteration of adult levels of hormones can alter the intensity of a behavior that is modulated by that hormone

24. Sexual Orientation n Sexual orientation is the direction of attraction for a sexual partner  Homosexuality: attraction for a person of the same-sex n Twin studies document a biological basis for homosexuality n Hormonal responses differ between homosexual and heterosexual men © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

25. Achievement Motives © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. n Need for Achievement: refers to the need to do well, to succeed, and to avoid failure  Persons who have a high level of need for achievement tend to Choose moderately difficult tasks Enjoy being challenged Avoid failure Work more persistently Enjoy success

26. Hierarchy of Motives © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (Figure adapted from A.J. Elliot & M.A. Church, 1977, p 227)

27. Copyright Copyright 2002 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission of the copyright owner. © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.