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Biochemistry of Cells.

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Presentation on theme: "Biochemistry of Cells."— Presentation transcript:

1 Biochemistry of Cells

2 Uses of Organic Molecules
Americans consume an average of 140 pounds of sugar per person per year Cellulose, found in plant cell walls, is the most abundant organic compound on Earth

3 Uses of Organic Molecules
A typical cell in your body has about 2 meters of DNA A typical cow produces over 200 pounds of methane gas each year

4 Water About 60-90 percent of an organism is water
Water is used in most reactions in the body Water is called the universal solvent

5 Water Properties Polarity Cohesiveness Adhesiveness Surface Tension

6 Carbon-based Molecules
Although a cell is mostly water, the rest of the cell consists mostly of carbon-based molecules Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds

7 Carbon is a Versatile Atom
It has four electrons in an outer shell that holds eight Carbon can share its electrons with other atoms to form up to four covalent bonds

8 Shape of Organic Molecules
Each type of organic molecule has a unique three-dimensional shape The shape determines its function in an organism

9 Giant Molecules - Polymers
Large molecules are called polymers Polymers are built from smaller molecules called monomers Biologists call them macromolecules

10 Examples of Polymers Proteins Lipids Carbohydrates Nucleic Acids

11 Most Macromolecules are Polymers
Polymers are made by stringing together many smaller molecules called monomers Nucleic Acid Monomer

12 This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar
Linking Monomers Cells link monomers by a process called dehydration synthesis (removing a molecule of water) Remove H H2O Forms Remove OH This process joins two sugar monomers to make a double sugar

13 Macromolecules in Organisms
There are four categories of large molecules in cells: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids

14 Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include:
Small sugar molecules in soft drinks Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes

15 Monosaccharides: Called simple sugars
Include glucose, fructose, & galactose Have the same chemical, but different structural formulas C6H12O6

16 Monosaccharides Glucose is found in sports drinks
Fructose is found in fruits Honey contains both glucose & fructose Galactose is called “milk sugar” Easily dissolve into aqueous solutions

17 Cellular Fuel Monosaccharides are the main fuel that cells use for cellular work ATP

18 Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar
They’re made by joining two monosaccharides Involves removing a water molecule (dehydration)

19 Common disaccharides include:
Sucrose (table sugar) Lactose (Milk Sugar) Maltose (Grain sugar)

20 What are the four types of organic compounds (macromolecules)?

21 Polysaccharides Complex carbohydrates
Composed of many sugar monomers linked together Polymers of monosaccharide chains

22 Examples of Polysaccharides
Glucose Monomer Starch Glycogen Cellulose

23 Starch Starch is an example of a polysaccharide in plants
Plant cells store starch for energy Potatoes and grains are major sources of starch in the human diet

24 Glycogen Glycogen is an example of a polysaccharide in animals
Animals store excess sugar in the form of glycogen Glycogen is similar in structure to starch

25 What are the building blocks of Carbohydrates?

26 What is an example of a monosaccharide?

27 Cellulose Cellulose is the most abundant organic compound on Earth
Found in the cell walls that enclose plants It is a major component of wood It is also known as dietary fiber

28 Cellulose SUGARS

29 Dietary Cellulose Most animals cannot derive nutrition from fiber
They have bacteria in their digestive tracts that can break down cellulose

30 Sugars in Water Simple sugars and double sugars dissolve readily in water WATER MOLECULE They are hydrophilic, or “water-loving” SUGAR MOLECULE

31 Lipids Lipids are hydrophobic –”water fearing” Do NOT mix with water
Includes fats, waxes, steroids, & oils FAT MOLECULE

32 Function of Lipids Fats store energy, help to insulate the body, and cushion and protect organs

33 What’s an example of a polysaccharide?

34 Types of Fatty Acids Unsaturated fatty acids have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (a double bond between carbons) Saturated fatty acids have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons (all single bonds between carbons)

35 Types of Fatty Acids Single Bonds in Carbon chain
Double bond in carbon chain

36 Triglyceride Monomer of lipids
Composed of Glycerol & 3 fatty acid chains Glycerol forms the “backbone” of the fat Organic Alcohol

37 Triglyceride Fatty Acid Chains Glycerol

38 Fats in Organisms Most animal fats have a high proportion of saturated fatty acids & exist as solids at room temperature (butter, margarine, shortening)

39 Fats in Organisms Most plant oils tend to be low in saturated fatty acids & exist as liquids at room temperature (oils)

40 Fats Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride composed of glycerol and three fatty acid chains Fatty Acid Chain Glycerol Dehydration links the fatty acids to Glycerol

41 Steroids The carbon skeleton of steroids is bent to form 4 fused rings
Cholesterol Cholesterol is the “base steroid” from which your body produces other steroids Estrogen Testosterone Estrogen & testosterone are also steroids

42 Butter would be an example of what type of organic compound?

43 Synthetic Anabolic Steroids
They are variants of testosterone Some athletes use them to build up their muscles quickly They can pose serious health risks

44 Proteins Proteins are polymers made of monomers called amino acids
All proteins are made of 20 different amino acids linked in different orders Proteins are used to build cells, act as hormones & enzymes, and do much of the work in a cell

45 Four Functions of Proteins
Storage Structural Contractile Transport

46 20 Amino Acid Monomers Amino Linked together by Dehydration synthesis, forming a Peptide Bond between amino acids

47 Proteins as Enzymes Many proteins act as biological catalysts or enzymes Thousands of different enzymes exist in the body Enzymes control the rate of chemical reactions by weakening bonds, thus lowering the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction

48 Enzymes Enzymes are globular proteins.
Their folded conformation creates an area known as the active site. The nature and arrangement of amino acids in the active site make it specific for only one type of substrate.

49 What are the monomers of lipids?

50 Enzyme + Substrate = Product

51 How the Enzyme Works Enzymes are reusable!!!

52 Primary Protein Structure
The primary structure is the specific sequence of amino acids in a protein Amino Acid

53 Protein Structures Secondary protein structures occur when protein chains coil or fold When protein chains called polypeptides join together, the tertiary structure forms In the watery environment of a cell, proteins become globular in their quaternary structure

54 Protein Structures Hydrogen bond Pleated sheet Polypeptide
(single subunit) Amino acid (a) Primary structure Hydrogen bond Alpha helix (b) Secondary structure (c) Tertiary structure (d) Quaternary structure

55 Denaturating Proteins
Changes in temperature & pH can denature (unfold, change the shape) a protein so it no longer works Cooking denatures protein in eggs Milk protein separates into curds & whey when it denatures

56 What are the building blocks of proteins?

57 Changing Amino Acid Sequence
Substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 2 1 3 6 4 5 Normal hemoglobin (a) Normal red blood cell 2 1 3 6 4 5 Sickle-cell hemoglobin (b) Sickled red blood cell

58 Nucleic Acids Store hereditary information
Contain information for making all the body’s proteins Two types exist --- DNA & RNA

59

60 Nucleic Acids Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides Nucleotide
Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or T) Phosphate group Thymine (T) Sugar (deoxyribose) Phosphate Base Sugar Nucleotide

61 Bases Each DNA nucleotide has one of the following bases: Adenine (A)
Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Adenine (A) Guanine (G)

62 Nucleotide Monomers Form long chains called DNA
Backbone Nucleotide Form long chains called DNA Nucleotides are joined by sugars & phosphates on the side Bases DNA strand

63 DNA Two strands of DNA join together to form a double helix Base pair

64 RNA – Ribonucleic Acid Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group
Nitrogenous base (A,G,C, or U) Ribose sugar has an extra –OH or hydroxyl group Uracil It has the base uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) Phosphate group Sugar (ribose)

65 Summary of Key Concepts

66 Nucleic Acids

67 Macromolecules

68 Macromolecules

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