Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings C h a p t e r 1 An Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology.

PSR Ch. 1  Append- (to hang something)  Cardi- (heart)  Cran- (helmet)  Dors- (back)  Homeo- (same)  -logy (study of)  Meta- (change)  Pariet- (wall)  Pelv- (basin)  Peri- (around)  Pleur- (rib)  -stasis (standing still)  -tomy (cutting) Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Why are we here?  Obviously, to learn about human anatomy and physiology.  But, what does that mean?  Before we begin, we’ve got to figure a few things out: 1.What’s a human? 2.What’s anatomy? 3.What’s physiology?

What are humans?  Organisms are classified as human because they are:  Animals  Vertebrates  Possess backbones  Mammals  Possess: –Mammary glands –Hair –Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally) –Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different shapes and functions) –3 middle ear bones.

What are humans?  Primates  Possess: –Opposable thumbs (can you touch your pinky with your thumb?). What advantage does this confer? –2 clavicles (collarbones) –Only 2 mammary glands. Why only 2? (Think about how many kids a woman normally gives birth to.) –Forward facing eyes with stereoscopic vision (for depth perception)  Hominids  Bipedal (walk on 2 legs)  Possess a large brain size/body size ratio

 What is anatomy?  Anatomy is defined as the study of…  Structure refers to the shapes, sizes, and characteristics of the components of the human body.  The word anatomy comes from 2 words:  Ana which means “up or apart”  Tomos which means “to cut” Why these two words????

Types of Anatomy  We can divide our study of structure into 2 parts:  Study of stuff seen by the naked eye (Gross Anatomy).  Study of stuff seen ONLY with the microscope (Microanatomy). –We can divide microanatomy into: »Histology – study of tissues »Cytology – study of individual cells.

Physiology  Physiology is defined as the study of function – so human physiology attempts to explain how and why humans function.  Physiology is where we figure out how stuff works.  How do muscles contract?  How do we run?  How does our heart beat?

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Introduction  Anatomy and physiology affect your life everyday  Anatomy is the oldest medical science  1600 B.C.  Physiology is the study of function  Biochemistry  Biology  Chemistry  Genetics

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Structure and Function  Anatomy  Describes the structures of the body  What they are made of  Where they are located  Associated structures  Physiology  Is the study of  Functions of anatomical structures  Individual and cooperative functions

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Anatomy and Physiology Integrated  Anatomy  Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy, examines large, visible structures  Surface anatomy: exterior features  Regional anatomy: body areas  Systemic anatomy: groups of organs working together  Developmental anatomy: from conception to death  Clinical anatomy: medical specialties

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Anatomy and Physiology Integrated  Anatomy  Microscopic anatomy examines cells and molecules  Cytology: study of cells and their structures cyt- = cell  Histology: study of tissues and their structures

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Anatomy and Physiology Integrated  Physiology  Cell physiology: processes within and between cells  Special physiology: functions of specific organs  Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system  Pathological physiology: effects of diseases

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Levels of Organization Atom – hydrogen atom, lithium atom Molecule – water molecule, glucose molecule Macromolecule – protein molecule, DNA molecule Organelle – mitochondrion, Golgi apparatus Cell – muscle cell, nerve cell Tissue – loose connective tissue, muscle tissue Organ – skin, femur Organ System – skeletal system, digestive system Organism - human 1-4

Levels of Organization 1-5

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Levels of Organization  The Chemical (or Molecular) Level  Atoms are the smallest chemical units  Molecules are a group of atoms working together  The Cellular Level  Cells are a group of atoms, molecules, and organelles working together  The Tissue Level  Tissues are a group of similar cells working together  The Organ Level  An organ is a group of different tissues working together

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Levels of Organization  The Organ System Level  Organ systems are a group of organs working together  Humans have 11 organ systems  The Organism Level  A human is an organism

Characteristics of Life Movement – change in position; motion Responsiveness – reaction to a change Growth – increase in size Respiration – obtaining oxygen; removing carbon dioxide; releasing energy from foods Reproduction – production of new organisms and new cells 1-6

Characteristics of Life Absorption – passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids Circulation – movement of substances in body fluids Assimilation – changing of absorbed substances into different substances Excretion – removal of wastes Digestion – breakdown of food substances 1-7

Requirements of Organisms Water - most abundant substance in body - required for metabolic processes - required for transport - regulates body temperature Food - supply energy - supply raw materials 1-8

Requirements of Organisms Oxygen - one-fifth of air - used to release energy from nutrients Heat - form of energy - partly controls rate of metabolic reactions Pressure - atmospheric pressure – important for breathing - hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing 1-9

Concept Check  At which level of organization does a histologist investigate structures?  What field of study is the specialty of a researcher who studies the factors that cause heart failure? Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Levels of Organization FIGURE 1–1 Levels of Organization.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Homeostasis  Homeostasis: all body systems working together to maintain a stable internal environment  Systems respond to external and internal changes to function within a normal range (body temperature, fluid balance)

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Homeostasis  Mechanisms of Regulation  Autoregulation (intrinsic)  Automatic response in a cell, tissue, or organ to some environmental change  Extrinsic regulation  Responses controlled by nervous and endocrine systems

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Homeostasis  Receptor  Receives the stimulus  Control center  Processes the signal and sends instructions  Effector  Carries out instructions

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01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Effectors Heater turns off; air conditioner turns on. Stimulus Room temperature rises above normal. Response Room temperature returns toward set point. too high Normal room temperature too low Stimulus Room temperature Decreases. Response Room temperature returns toward set point. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Effectors Heater turns on; air conditioner turns off. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors. Thermostat set point.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Room temperature rises above normal. too high Normal room temperature Thermostat set point.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 3 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Stimulus Room temperature rises above normal. too high Normal room temperature Thermostat set point.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 4 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Stimulus Room temperature rises above normal. too high Normal room temperature Thermostat set point.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Effectors Heater turns off; air conditioner turns on. Stimulus Room temperature rises above normal. too high Normal room temperature Thermostat set point.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 6 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Effectors Heater turns off; air conditioner turns on. Stimulus Room temperature rises above normal. Response Room temperature returns toward set point. too high Normal room temperature Thermostat set point.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal room temperature too low Thermostat set point. Stimulus Room temperature Decreases.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 8 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal room temperature too low Thermostat set point. Stimulus Room temperature Decreases. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 9 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal room temperature too low Thermostat set point. Stimulus Room temperature Decreases. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 10 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal room temperature too low Thermostat set point. Stimulus Room temperature Decreases. Effectors Heater turns on; air conditioner turns off. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors.

01_07 Thermostat as example of homeostatic mechanism Slide number: 11 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Normal room temperature too low Thermostat set point. Stimulus Room temperature Decreases. Response Room temperature returns toward set point. Effectors Heater turns on; air conditioner turns off. Receptors Thermostat in room detects change. Control center Thermostat detects deviation from set point and signals effectors.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Negative and Positive Feedback  The Role of Negative Feedback  The response of the effector negates the stimulus  Body is brought back into homeostasis  Normal range is achieved

01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 1 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. Effectors Skin blood vessels dilate and sweat glands secrete. Stimulus Body temperature rises above normal. Response Body heat is lost to surroundings, temperature drops toward normal. too high too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal. Response Body heat is conserved, temperature rises toward normal. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. Effectors Skin blood vessels constrict and sweat glands remain inactive. Effectors generates body heat. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. If body temperature continues to drop, control center signals muscles to contract involuntarily.

01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 2 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature rises above normal. too high Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F)

01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 3 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. Stimulus Body temperature rises above normal. too high Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F)

01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 4 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. Stimulus Body temperature rises above normal. too high Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F)

01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 5 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. Effectors Skin blood vessels dilate and sweat glands secrete. Stimulus Body temperature rises above normal. too high Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F)

01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 6 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. Effectors Skin blood vessels dilate and sweat glands secrete. Stimulus Body temperature rises above normal. Response Body heat is lost to surroundings, temperature drops toward normal. too high Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F)

too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) 01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 7 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal.

Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) 01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 8 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal.

Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) 01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 9 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs.

Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) 01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 10 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. If body temperature continues to drop, control center signals muscles to contract involuntarily.

Effectors Skin blood vessels constrict and sweat glands remain inactive. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) 01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 11 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal. Effectors Muscle activity generates body heat. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. If body temperature continues to drop, control center signals muscles to contract involuntarily.

Effectors Skin blood vessels constrict and sweat glands remain inactive. Receptors Thermoreceptors send signals to the control center. too low Normal body Temperature 37 o C (98.6 o F) 01_08 Homeostatic mechanism regulates body temperature Slide number: 12 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Stimulus Body temperature drops below normal. Response Body heat is conserved, temperature rises toward normal. Effectors Muscle activity generates body heat. Control center The brain detects the deviation from the set point and signals effector organs. If body temperature continues to drop, control center signals muscles to contract involuntarily.

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Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Negative and Positive Feedback  The Role of Positive Feedback  The response of the effector increases change of the stimulus  Body is moved away from homeostasis  Normal range is lost  Used to speed up processes

Positive Feedback in Blood Clotting

Fig. 1.12

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Systems Integration  Systems integration  Systems work together to maintain homeostasis  Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium  Opposing forces are in balance  Physiological systems work to restore balance  Failure results in disease or death

Concept Check  Why is homeostatic regulation important to humans?  What happens to the body when homeostasis breaks down?  Why is positive feedback helpful in blood clotting, but unsuitable for the regulation of body temperature? Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Anatomical Terminology  Superficial Anatomy  Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms forward  Supine: lying down, face up  Prone: lying down, face down

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Anatomical Terminology  Superficial Anatomy  Anatomical Landmarks  References to palpable structures  Anatomical Regions  Body regions  Abdominopelvic quadrants  Abdominopelvic regions  Anatomical Directions  Reference terms based on subject

LE 1-8 INFERIOR SUPERIOR Right Cranial Left Proximal LateralMedial Proximal Distal Caudal Posterior or dorsal Anterior or ventral

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Anatomical Terminology  Sectional Anatomy  Planes and sections  Plane: a three-dimensional axis  Section: a slice parallel to a plane  Used to visualize internal organization and structure  Important in radiological techniques –MRI –PET –CT

Body Sections Sagittal / Midsagittal or Median Transverse / Cross Coronal or Frontal Oblique 1-19

Body Cavities 1-12

Serous Membranes Thoracic Membranes Visceral pleura Parietal pleura Visceral pericardium Parietal pericardium Visceral layer – covers an organ Parietal layer – lines a cavity or body wall Abdominopelvic Membranes Visceral peritoneum Parietal peritoneum 1-13

Serous Membranes 1-14

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities  Body cavities have two essential functions  Protect organs from accidental shocks  Permit changes in size and shape of internal organs  Ventral body cavity (coelom)  Divided by the diaphragm:  Thoracic cavity  Abdominopelvic cavity

LE 1-10 VENTRAL BODY CAVITY (COELOM) ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY THORACIC CAVITY RIGHT PLEURAL CAVITY PERICARDIAL CAVITY LEFT PLEURAL CAVITY MEDIASTINUM ABDOMINAL CAVITY subdivided into PELVIC CAVITY separated by diaphragm into also contains includes the Surrounds right lung Surrounds heart Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Surrounds left lung Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Contains the peritoneal cavity Contains many digestive glands and organs Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract Provides protection; allows organ movement; lining prevents friction

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities  Serous membranes  Line body cavities and cover organs  Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer  Parietal layer — lines cavity  Visceral layer — covers organ

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities  The Thoracic Cavity  Separated into regions  Right and left pleural cavities –contain right and left lungs  Mediastinum –upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea, esophagus, and thymus –lower portion contains pericardial cavity »the heart is located within the pericardial cavity

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities  The Abdominopelvic Cavity  Peritoneal cavity — chamber within abdominopelvic cavity  Parietal peritoneum lines the internal body wall  Visceral peritoneum covers the organs

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities  The Abdominopelvic Cavity  Abdominal cavity — superior portion  Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones  Contains digestive organs  Retroperitoneal space –Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body wall –Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive tract

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Body Cavities  The Abdominopelvic Cavity  Pelvic cavity — inferior portion  Within pelvic bones  Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder

Concept Check  Which type of section would separate the two eyes?  If a surgeon makes an incision just inferior to the diaphragm, which body cavity will be opened?  What does viscera mean? Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

UNLABELED ART & PHOTOS

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