1. Ecology The Extras for AP

2. Aquatic Biomes The photic zones are areas in bodies of water where there is enough sunlight for photosynthesis The aphotic zones are areas where little light penetrates. At the bottom of all aquatic biomes, the substrate (sand and sediment) is called the benthic zone.

3. Terrestrial Biomes The canopy is the upper layer of trees/leaves in a forest. The litter layer is another word for the forest floor.

4. Behavior Ethology is the study of animal behavior Imprinting is when animals learn a behavior through watching others Kinesis is a change in activity due to a stimulus Taxis is an automatic movement towards or away from a stimulus

5. Behavior Pheromones are chemical substances that animals use to communicate (usually related to reproduction) Promiscuous species form no strong bonds or relationships Monogamous species have one male mate with one female, for life (birds) Polygamy is when an individual of one sex mates with many of the other sex

6. Behavior Polygyny is when one male mates with many females (crickets, tortoises) Polyandry is when one female mates with many males (lions, deer) Altruism is when an animal behaves in a way that reduces its individual fitness but benefits other individuals in a population.

7. Populations A population is a group of inter-breeding individuals of a single species living in the same general area. Density is the number of individuals per unit area Dispersion is the pattern of spacing between these individuals. Immigration is when animals move INTO an area Emigration is when animals move OUT of an area

8. Communities Cryptic coloration is camouflage, where animals blend in to their surroundings (chameleons) Aposematic coloration is when animals that are toxic/poisonous are brightly colored (dendrobates) Batesian mimicry is when a harmless species mimics a dangerous one (moths that look like snakes) Mullerian mimicry is when two or more unpalatable species look like each other (bees and yellow jackets)

9. Communities Parasites derive nourishment from hosts, which ARE harmed in the process. (+/-) Pathogens are disease causing agents (bacteria, viruses, protists, prions, fungi) (+/-) In mutualism an interaction benefits BOTH species (+/+) (shark and remora) In commensalism one species is benefited, the other is not affected. (+/0) (whale and barnacles)

10. Communities A keystone species is a species (not necessarily abundant) that exerts strong control on the community structure Dominant species are the ones that are most abundant (have the most biomass)

11. Communities A disturbance is an event that changes a community In succession, things grow back from small to big: Prokaryotes (bacteria) then lichens and mosses then grasses then shrubs and trees last. In primary succession, no soil is left behind after a disturbance (a glacier or volcano) In secondary succession, soil is left behind (fire)

12. Humans doing bad things There are too many humans! Agriculture reduces soil and nutrients Water pollution kills plants and animals Air pollution causes acid rain Toxins in the environment magnify up the food chain Increased carbon dioxide causes climate change more rapidly than normal Increased carbon dioxide causes “greenhouse effect” which raises ocean temps Hole in the ozone layer kills plants and causes cancer