1. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 1 Chapter 7 Thinking, Intelligence, and Language

2. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 2 Chapter Preview The Cognitive Revolution in Psychology Thinking Intelligence Language

3. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 3 The Cognitive Revolution Cognition Way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing The advent of computers in 1950s Computer science, a key motivator in the birth of the study of human cognition

4. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 4 The Cognitive Revolution Computer used as an analogy to help explain the relationship between cognition and the brain Cognitive psychology Approaches seeking to explain observable behavior by investigating mental processes and structures that cannot be directly observed

5. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 5 Figure 7.1 - Computers and Human Cognition

6. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 6 The Cognitive Revolution Artificial intelligence (AI) Focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people Especially helpful in tasks requiring speed, persistence, and a vast memory

7. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 7 Thinking Involves manipulating information mentally by: Forming concepts Solving problems Making decisions Reflecting in a critical or creative manner

8. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 8 Concepts Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics Are important because: Allows generalization Allows association of experiences and objects Aids memory Provide clues about how to react to particular object or experience

9. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 9 Concepts The structure of concepts can be explained by the prototype model When evaluating whether a given item reflects a certain concept, people compare the item with the most typical item(s) in that category Look for a “family resemblance” with the item’s properties

10. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 10 Problem Solving Finding appropriate way to attain goal which is not readily available The problem-solving process: Find and frame problems Develop good problem-solving strategies Subgoaling Algorithms Heuristics

11. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 11 Problem Solving Evaluate solutions Rethink and redefine problems and solutions over time

12. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 12 Obstacles to Problem Solving Fixation - Using prior strategy and failing to look at problem from fresh, new perspective Functional fixedness - Failure to solve problem due to fixedness on usual function of something Effective problem solving necessitates trying something new

13. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 13 Reasoning and Decision Making Reasoning - Mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions Inductive reasoning - Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations Deductive reasoning - Reasoning from a general case that we know to be true to a specific instance

14. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 14 Reasoning and Decision Making Decision making - Evaluating alternatives and choosing among them Reasoning uses established rules to draw conclusions In decision making rules are not established and consequences of the decisions are unknown

15. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 15 Reasoning and Decision Making Two systems of reasoning and decision making Automatic - Involves processing that is rapid, heuristic, and intuitive Entails following one’s hunches or gut feelings Controlled - Involves conscious reflection about an issue Is slower, effortful, and analytical

16. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 16 Biases in Decision Making Confirmation bias - The tendency to search for and use information that supports ideas rather than refutes them Hindsight bias - The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that outcome was accurately predicted

17. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 17 Heuristics in Decision Making Availability heuristic - Prediction about possibility of event based on recalling or imagining similar events Base rate fallacy - Tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information Representativeness heuristic - Tendency to make judgments about group membership based on match to group stereotype

18. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 18 Thinking Critically Thinking reflectively and productively Evaluating evidence Cultivation of two mental habits Mindfulness - Being alert and mentally present for everyday activities Open-mindedness - Being receptive to other ways of looking at things

19. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 19 Thinking Creatively To think about something in unusual ways To devise unconventional solutions to problems Divergent thinking - Producing many solutions to same problem Brainstorming Convergent thinking - Producing single best solution to problem Creative thinkers do both

20. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 20 Thinking Creatively Characteristics of individuals who think creatively Flexibility and playful thinking Inner motivation Willingness to face risk Objective evaluation of work

21. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 21 Intelligence Cultures vary in ways they define intelligence An all-purpose ability to: Do well on cognitive tasks Solve problems Learn from experience

22. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 22 Measuring Intelligence Criteria for a good intelligence test Validity - Extent to which test measures what it is intended to measure Reliability - Extent to which test yields consistent, reproducible measure of performance Standardization – Involves: Developing uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test Creating norms—performance standards—for the test

23. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 23 IQ Tests Mental age, developed by Binet - Individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others Intelligence quotient, developed by Stern IQ = (MA/CA) x 100, where: MA - Mental age CA - Chronological age

24. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 24 IQ Tests Normal distribution Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve A majority of the scores falling in the middle of the possible range Few scores appear toward the extremes of the range

25. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 25 Figure 7.9

26. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 26 Cultural Bias in IQ Testing Culturally biased tests have favored people From urban, rather than rural, environments Of middle, rather than low, socioeconomic status Who are White, rather than African American Culture-fair tests - Two types Intelligence tests intended to be culturally unbiased Includes no verbal questions - Raven progressive matrices

27. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 27 Genetic Influences on Intelligence Heritability - Proportion of observable differences explained by genes Can change over time and across groups Environmental factors have an impact on heritability

28. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 28 Environmental Influences on Intelligence Effect of education on intelligence evident in rapidly increasing IQ test scores around the world Called the Flynn effect The word intelligent describes not only people but also behaviors

29. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 29 Extremes of Intelligence Giftedness - High intelligence and/or superior talent in a particular area Product of heredity and environment Intellectual disability - Condition of limited mental ability in which an individual has a low IQ Difficulty adapting to everyday life Characteristics exhibited by age 18

30. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 30 Intellectual Disability Organic intellectual disability - Caused by a genetic disorder or brain damage Cultural-familial intellectual disability - A mental deficit with no evidence of organic brain damage

31. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 31 Intellectual Disability Levels of adaptive behavior: Conceptual skills - Understanding of numbers, money, and time Social skills - Interpersonal skills, responsibility, self-esteem, and ability to follow rules and obey Practical skills - Activities of daily living such as personal care, occupational skills, health care, travel/transportation, and use of the telephone

32. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 32 Theories of Multiple Intelligences Sternberg’s triarchic theory - Intelligence comes in three forms: Analytical intelligence - The ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast Creative intelligence - The ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine Practical intelligence - The ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice

33. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 33 Theories of Multiple Intelligences – Verbal – Occupations – Mathematical – Spatial – Bodily-kinesthetic – Musical – Interpersonal – Intrapersonal – Naturalist – Existentialist Howard Gardner’s frames of mind

34. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 34 Language Form of communication, whether spoken, written, or signed Based on a system of symbols

35. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 35 Basic Properties of Language Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics Pragmatics

36. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 36 Language and Cognition Connection between language and thought has been of considerable interest to psychologists Is thought dependent on language, or is language dependent on thought? Intellectual disability often, but not always, accompanied by reduced language proficiency Language and thought not part of single system

37. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 37 Biological Influences on Language Biological evolution that occurred long before language emerged undeniably shaped humans into linguistic creatures Language universals - Human came into the world biologically prewired to learn language Strongest evidence - Children all over the world reach language milestones at about the same time and in about the same order Language and the brain - Brain contains particular regions that are predisposed to language

38. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 38 Environmental Influences on Language Language represents nothing more than chains of responses acquired through reinforcement Language is a complex learned skill Not tenable, given rapid language development Critical period - Special time in a child’s life during which language must develop Biology and environment interact when children learn language

39. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 39 Figure 7.13 - Language Milestones

40. © 2013 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part. 40 Language Development Over the Life Span Milestones of language development Babbling Sorting through sounds for ones with meaning First words Two-word statements For adults, learning a new language requires a special kind of cognitive exercise