1. Chapter 4 Grammars and Parsing Prof Chung. 1 2008/03/18

2. Outlines 2  Context-Free Grammars Context-Free Grammars  Errors in Context-Free Grammars Errors in Context-Free Grammars  Transforming Extended BNF Grammars Transforming Extended BNF Grammars  Parsers and Recognizers Parsers and Recognizers  Grammar Analysis Algorithms Grammar Analysis Algorithms

3. Context-Free Grammars: (1) Concepts and Notation  A context-free grammar G = (Vt, Vn, S, P)  A finite terminal vocabulary Vt  The token set produced by scanner  A finite set of nonterminal vocabulary Vn  Intermediate symbols 3 Denote symbols in Vt : a,b,c Denote symbols in Vn : A,B,C

4. Context-Free Grammars: (2) Concepts and Notation  A context-free grammar G = (Vt, Vn, S, P)  A start symbol S  Vn that starts all derivations  Also called goal symbol  P, a finite set of productions (rewriting rules) of the form A  X 1 X 2  X m  A  Vn, X i  Vn  Vt, 1  i  m  A  is a valid production 4

5. Context-Free Grammars: (3) Concepts and Notation  Other notations  Vocabulary V of G,  V= Vn  Vt  L(G), the set of string s derivable from S  Context-free language of grammar G  Notational conventions  Denote symbols in V : U,V,W,   Denote strings in V * : , , ,   Denote strings in V t * : u,v,w,  5

6. Context-Free Grammars: (4) Concepts and Notation  Derivation  One step derivation  If A , then  A   One or more steps derivation    Zero or more steps derivation    If S   , then  is said to be sentential form of the CFG  SF(G) is the set of sentential forms of grammar G  L(G) = {x  V t * |S   x}  L(G)=SF(G)  V t * 6

7. Context-Free Grammars: (5) Concepts and Notation  Left-most derivation  top-down parsers 【   lm ,   lm ,  lm  】  E.g. of leftmost derivation of F(V+V)  Right-most derivation (canonical derivation)  Buttom-up parsers 【   rm ,   rm ,  rm  】  E.g. of rightmost derivation of F(V+V) 7 E  lm Prefix(E)  lm F(E)  lm F(V Tail)  lm F(V+E)  lm F(V+V Tail)  lm F(V+V) E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 E  rm Prefix(E)  rm Prefix(V Tail)  rm Prefix(V+E)  rm Prefix(V+V Tail)  rm Prefix(V+V)  rm F(V+V) Same # of steps, but different order

8. Context-Free Grammars: (6) Concepts and Notation  A parse tree  rooted by the start symbol  Its leaves are grammar symbols or  A phase at next page… 8

9. Context-Free Grammars: (6) Concepts and Notation  Phrase  A phrase of a sentential form  is a sequence of symbols descended from a single non-terminal in the parse tree  Simple or prime phrase  is a phrase that contains no smaller phrase  Simple phrase  is a sequence of symbols directly derived from a non-terminal  Handle  The handle of a sentential form  is the left-most simple phrase  Simple phrases cannot overlap, so “leftmost” is unambiguous  Handles are important  because they represent individual derivation steps, which can be recognized by various parsing techniques. 9 Sentential Form : F(V Tail) Simple Phrases : F,VTail Handle : F Example

10. Context-Free Grammars: (7) Concepts and Notation  Regular grammars  Limited to productions of the form  The handle of a sentential form is the left-most simple phrase  Context-sensitive grammars  Require that nonterminals be rewritten only when they appear in a particular context.  Type-0 grammars  Still more general and allow arbitrary patterns to be rewritten.  Context-sensitive and Type-0 grammars are more powerful than CFGs, but less useful.  This is that efficient parsers for these extended grammar classes do not exist,  Without a parser there is no way to use a grammar definition to drive a compiler.  CFGs represent a nice balance between generality and practicality. 10 A  aB C  A  aB C  Rule ： α A β  α δ β Rule ： α  β

11. Errors in Context-Free Grammars (1)  Ambiguous  Grammars that allow different parse trees for the same terminal string 11 Equal ?

12. Errors in Context-Free Grammars (2)  “Useless nonterminals ”  Is unreachable or derive no terminal string are termed useless.  Can be safely removed from a grammar without changing the defined by the grammar.  A grammar containing useless nonterminals is said to be nonreduced.  After useless nonterminals are removed, the grammar is reduced.  Example :  In G 1, nonterminal C cannot be reached from S.  In G 1, nonterminal B derives no terminal string. 12 S  A | B A  a B  Bb C  c G1G1 S  A A  a G1G1 Reduced

13.  It is impossible to do :  Decide whether a given CFG is ambiguous  Analyze Wrong language  Production Exception  No general comparison algorithm applicable to all CFGs Errors in Context-Free Grammars (3) 13

14. Transforming Extened BNF Grammars  Extended BNF  BNF  Extended BNF allows  Square bracket [ ]  Optional list { } for (each production P=A  α [X 1 …X n ] β ) { Create a new nonterminal, N. Replace production P with p’ = A  α N β Add the productions: N  X 1 … Xn and N  } for (each production Q=B  γ {Y1…Ym} δ ) { Create a new nonterminal, M. Replace production Q with Q’ = B  γ M δ Add the productions: M  Y 1 … Y m M and M  } Algorithm to Transform Extended BNF Grammars into Standard Form 14  ID {, ID } ’  ID M M , ID M M   ID [ ID 1 ID 2 ] ’  ID N N , ID 1 ID 2 N 

15. Parsers and Recognizers (1)  Recognizer  An algorithm that does boolean-valued test  “Is this input syntactically valid?  Parser  Answers more general questions  Is this input valid?  And, if it is, what is its structure (parse tree)? 15

16. Parsers and Recognizers (2)  Two general approaches to parsing  Top-down parser  Expanding the parse tree (via predictions) in a depth-first manner  Preorder traversal of the parse tree  Predictive in nature  LL (lm)  Buttom-down parser  Beginning at its bottom (the leaves of the tree, which are terminal symbols) and determining the productions used to generate the leaves  Post-order traversal of the parse tree  LR (rm) 16

17. Parsers and Recognizers (3)  Naming of parsing techniques Top-down  LL Bottom-up  LR 17 The way to parse token sequence L: Leftmost R: Righmost

18. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (1)  Goal of this section  Discuss a number of important analysis algorithms for Grammars 18 typedef struct gram { symbol terminals[NUM_TERMINALS]; symbol nonterminals[NUM_NONTERMINIALS]; symbol start_symbol; int num-productions; struct prod { symbol lhs; int rhs_length; symbol rhs[MAX_RHS_LENGTH]; } produtcions[NUM_PRODUCTIONS]; symbol vocabulary[VOCABULARY]; } grammar; typedef struct prod production; typedef symbol terminal; typedef symbol nonterminal;

19. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (2)  What nonterminals can derive ?  Ex : A  BCD  BC  B   An iterative marking algorithm 19 Marked_vocabulary mark_lambda(const grammar g) { Step 1 : Initialize Step 2 : Nonterminals that derive trivially are marked. Step 3 : Nonterminals requiring a parse tree height of two are found. Step 4 : Continue finding nonterminals requiring parse trees of ever-increasing height, until no more nonterminals can be marked as deriving. } Source Code in Next page. 【 Cause & GOAL 】 Determining if a nonterminal can derive is not entirely trivial because the derivation may take more than one step.

20. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (3) typedef short boolean; typedef boolean marked_vocabulary[VOCABULARY]; /* Mark those vocabulary symbols found to derive (directly or indirectly). */ Marked_vocabulary mark_lambda(const grammar g) { …….……………………………………………………………………. for(v=0; v<VOCABBULARY; v++) derives_lambda[v] = FALSE; /* initially, nothing is marked */ do { changes = FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; if( !derives_lambda[p.lhs]) { if(p.rhs_length ==0) { /*derives directly */ changes = derives_lambda[p.lhs] = TRUE; continue; } /* does each part of RHS derive ? */ rhs_derives_lambda = derives_lambda[p.rhs[0]]; for(j=1;j<p.rhs_length;j++) rhs_derives_lambda = rhs_derives_lambda && deroves_lambda[p.rhs[j]]; if(rhs_derives_lambda) { changes =TRUE; derives_lambda[p.lhs] =TRUE; } }while (changes); return derives_lambda; } 20 static marked_vocabulary derives_lambda; boolean changes; /* any changes during last iteration? */ boolean rhs_derives_lambda; /* does the RHS derive ? */ symbol v; /* a word in vocabulary */ production p; /* a production in the grammar */ int i,j; /* loop variables */ More Example at next page…

21. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (4)  Definition of C data structures and subroutines  first_set[X]  contains terminal symbols and  X is any single vocabulary symbol  All the terminal symbols that can begin a sentential form derivable from   If  is the right-hand side of a production, then First(  ) contains terminal symbols that begin strings derivable from   follow_set[A]  contains terminal symbols and in some sentential form  A is a nonterminal symbol 21 Follow(A)={a  Vt|S  *  Aa  }  {if S  +  A then { } else  } First(  )={a  Vt|   * a  }  {if   * then { } else  } More Example at next page…

22. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (5) typedef set_of_terminal_or_lambda termsets; termset follow_set[NUM_NONTERMINAL]; termset first_set[SYMBOL]; marked vocabulary dervies_lambda = mark_lambda(g); /* mark_lambda(g) as defined above */ termset compute first (string_of_symbols alpha) { int i,k; termset result; k= length (alpha); if( k==0 ) result = SET_OF ( ); else { result = first_set[alpha[0]]; for (i=1; i<k && ∈ first_set[alpha[i-1]];i++) result = result ∪ ( first_set[alpha[i]] –SET_OF( )); if(i==k && ∈ first_set[alpha[k-1]]) result = result ∪ SET_OF( ); } return result; } 22 【 Cause 】 ： For an arbitrary string , we can’t have the First and Follow sets pre-computed, so we use this function that return the set of terminals defined by First(  ). 【 Action 】： If  happens to be exactly one symbol long. 【 GOAL 】： This function will simply return first_set[  ]. It is a subroutine of fill_first_set() E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 More Example at next page…

23. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 23 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 

24. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 24 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01  { }

25. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 25 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01  { }

26. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 26 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01  { } 2 {(} 

27. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 27 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {(}  

28. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 28 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {(}  

29. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 29 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {)}  {(} 

30. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 30 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {)}  {(} 

31. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 31 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {)}  {(} 

32. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 32 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {V}  {(}  {)}{V}

33. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 33 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {V}  {(} {V} {)}

34. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 34 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {V}  {(} {V} {)}

35. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 35 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F}  {(} {V} {)}{V}

36. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 36 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F}  {(} {V} {)}{V} {F, }

37. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 37 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, }{ } {F}  {(} {V} {)}{V}

38. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 38 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, }{ } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F}

39. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 39 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, }{ } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F}

40. StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 40 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } { } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} {+, }

41. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 41 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {V}{F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

42. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 42 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

43. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 43 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

44. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 44 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

45. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 45 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

46. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 46 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

47. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 47 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

48. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 48 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

49. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 49 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, } {(}

50. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 50 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {(} {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, }

51. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 51 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, } {(}

52. do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop (2)Second (nested) Loop (3)Third Loop, production 1 for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  aβ) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 52 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 01 { } 2 {F, } {+}  {V} {)}{V}{F} 3 {F,V,(} {F, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {+, } {(}

53. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) …………… (3) } 53 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1)First Loop  { } (2)Second (nested) Loop {V} {F, }{+, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} (3)Third Loop, production 1 {V, F, (} {F, }{+, } {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} do { changes =FALSE; for (i=0;i<g.num_productions; i++) { p=g.productions[i]; first_set[p.lhs] = first_set[p.lhs] ∪ compute_first(p.rhs); if( first_set changed ) changes = TRUE; } } while (changes); for(i=0; i<NUM_NONTERMINAL; i++) { A=g.nonterminals[i]; if(derives_lambda[A]) first_set[A] = SET_OF( ); else first_set[A]=  ; } for(i=0;i<NUM_TERMINAL; i++) { a=g.terminals[i]; first_set[a] = SET_OF (a); for(j=0;j<NUM_NONTERMINAL; j++) { A=g.nonterminals[j]; if(there exists a production A  a β) first_set[A]=first_set[A] ∪ SET_OF(a); } Nonterminal A; terminal a; production p; booleanchanges; IntI, j; 0 23 1

54. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { Simple Method } 54 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 LookFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1) (2) (3) Simple Algorithm {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {Prefix, V} {F, }{+, } {F, V,(} {F, }{+, } {F, V,(} {F, }{+, } More Operation at next page…

55. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { Simple Method } 55 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 LookFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1) Simple Algorithm {Prefix, V} {F, }{+, }

56. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { Simple Method } 56 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1) (2) Simple Algorithm {Prefix, V} {F, }{+, } {F, V, (} {F, }{+, } Translate Non-terminal in First Set “Prefix” can be replaced by “F” or “ ” So…. E  Prefix(E) Translate E  F(E) E  (E) But In “E  (E)”, the is empty… So catch more one… E  (E) The first set of “Prefix” and “Tail” do not have non-terminals!

57. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (6) Extern grammar g; void fill_first_set(void) { Simple Method } 57 E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 LookFirst Set EPrefixTail()VF+ (1) (2) (3) Simple Algorithm {(}{)}{V}{F}{+} {Prefix, V} {F, }{+, } {F, V,(} {F, }{+, } {F, V,(} {F, }{+, } More Operation at next page… The first set of terminals are itself

58. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 58 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g.nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1) Initialization noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 1 { }

59. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 59 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g.nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1) Initialization noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 1  { }

60. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 60 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g.nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1) Initialization { } noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 1  

61. do { changes = FALSE; for (each production A  αBβ) { /* I.e. for each production and each occurrence of a nonterminal in its right-hand side.*/ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ (compute_first(β) – SET_OF ( )); if( ∈ compute_first(β))€ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ follow_set[A]; if(follow_set[B] changed) changes = TRUE; } }while (changes); Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 61 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g.nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1) Initialization { }  (2)Process Prefix in production 1 { }  noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 12 {(}  changes = FALSE TRUE

62. do { changes = FALSE; for (each production A  αBβ) { /* I.e. for each production and each occurrence of a nonterminal in its right-hand side.*/ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ (compute_first(β) – SET_OF ( )); if( ∈ compute_first(β))€ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ follow_set[A]; if(follow_set[B] changed) changes = TRUE; } }while (changes); Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 62 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g.nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1) Initialization { }  (2)Process Prefix in production 1 { } {(}  (2)Process E in production 1 {(}  noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 12 changes = FALSE TRUE {, )}{ }

63. do { changes = FALSE; for (each production A  αBβ) { /* I.e. for each production and each occurrence of a nonterminal in its right-hand side.*/ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ (compute_first(β) – SET_OF ( )); if( ∈ compute_first(β))€ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ follow_set[A]; if(follow_set[B] changed) changes = TRUE; } }while (changes); Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 63 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g.nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1) Initialization { }  (2)Process Prefix in production 1 { } {(}  (2)Process E in production 1 {(}  (4)Process Tail in production 2 {, )} {(} noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 12 changes = FALSE TRUE {, )}{ } {, )} 

64. Grammar Analysis Algorithms (7) Extern grammar g; void fill_follow_set(void) { …………… (0) …………… (1) …………… (2) } 64 for(i=0; i<NUM_NOTERMINAL; i++) { A = g,nonterminals[i]; follow_set[A] =  ; } do { changes = FALSE; for (each production A  αBβ) { /* I.e. for each production and each occurrence of a nonterminal in its right-hand side.*/ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ (compute_first(β) – SET_OF ( )); if( ∈ compute_first(β))€ follow_set[B] = follow_set[B] ∪ follow_set[A]; if(follow_set[B] changed) changes = TRUE; } }while (changes); E  Prefix(E) E  V Tail Prefix  F Prefix  Tail  Tail  G0G0 StepFollow Set EPrefixTail (1)Initialization { }  (2)Process Prefix in production 1 { } {(}  (3)Process E in production 1 {, )} {(}  (4)Process Tail in production 2 {, )} {(} {, )} noterminal A, B; int i; boolean changes; 0 12

65. More examples (1) 65 S  aSe S  B B  bBe B  C C  cCe C  d The execution of fill_first_set() StepFirst Set SBCabcde StepFollow Set SBC (1)First Loop  (2)Second (nested) Loop{a}{b}{c, d}{a}{b}{c}{d}{e} (3)Third Loop, production 2{a, b}{b}{c, d}{a}{b}{c}{d}{e} (4)Third Loop, production 4{a, b}{b, c, d}{c, d}{a}{b}{c}{d}{e} (5)Third Loop, production 2{a, b, c, d}{b, c, d}{c, d}{a}{b}{c}{d}{e} (1)Initialization { }  (2)Process S in production 1 {e, }  (3)Process B in production 2 {e, }  (4)Process B in production 3No Changes (5)Process C in production 4 {e, } (6)Process C in production 5No Changes

66. More examples (2) StepFirst Set SABabc 66 S  ABc A  a A  B  b B  StepFollow Set SAB (1)First Loop  { } (2)Second (nested) Loop  {a, }{b, } {a}{b}{c} (3)Third Loop, production 1{a, b, c} {a, }{b, } {a}{b}{c} (1)Initialization { }  (2)Process A in production 1 { } {b, c}  (3)Process B in production 1 { } {b, c}{c}