1. Chapter 17 Sheet Forming Processes EIN 3390 Manufacturing Processes Summer A, 2011

2. 17.1 Introduction
Sheet metal processes involve plane stress loadings and lower forces than bulk forming
Almost all sheet metal forming is considered to be secondary processing
The main categories of sheet metal forming are:
Shearing
Bending
Drawing

3. 17.2 Shearing Operations
Shearing- mechanical cutting of material without the formation of chips or the use of burning or melting
Both cutting blades are straight
Curved blades may be used to produce different shapes
Blanking
Piercing
Notching
Trimming

4. Shearing Operations
Fracture and tearing begin at the weakest point and proceed progressively or intermittently to the next-weakest location
Results in a rough and ragged edge
Punch and die must have proper alignment and clearance
Sheared edges can be produced that require no further finishing

5. Shearing Operations
Figure 17-1 Simple blanking with a punch and die.

6. Shearing Operations

7. Classification of Metal forming Operations

8. Types of Shearing
Simple shearing- sheets of metal are sheared along a straight line
Slitting- lengthwise shearing process that is used to cut coils of sheet metal into several rolls of narrower width
Figure 17-5 Method of smooth shearing a rod by putting it into compression during shearing.
Figure 17-6 A 3-m (10ft) power shear for 6.5 mm (1/4-in.) steel. (Courtesy of Cincinnati Incorporated, Cincinnati, OH.)

9. Shearing Operations
Figure 17-2 (Left) (Top) Conventionally sheared surface showing the distinct regions of deformation and fracture and (bottom) magnified view of the sheared edge. (Courtesy of Feintool Equipment Corp., Cincinnati, OH.)

10. Piercing and Blanking
Piercing and blanking are shearing operations where a part is removed from sheet material by forcing a shaped punch through the sheet and into a shaped die
Blanking- the piece being punched out becomes the workpiece
Piercing- the punchout is the scrap and the remaining strip is the workpiece
Figure 17-8 (Above) (Left to Right) Piercing, lancing, and blanking precede the forming of the final ashtray. The small round holes assist positioning and alignment.
Figure 17-7 Schematic showing the difference between piercing and blanking.

11. Fine Blanking Operations
Fine Blanking - the piece being punched out becomes the workpiece and pressure pads are used to smooth edges in shearing
Figure 17-3 (Top) Method of obtaining a smooth edge in shearing by using a shaped pressure plate to put the metal into localized compression and a punch and opposing punch descending in unison.

12. Shearing Operations
Figure 17-4 Fineblanked surface of the same component as shown in Figure (Courtesy of Feintool Equipment Corp., Cincinnati, OH.)

13. Types of Piercing and Blanking
Lancing- piercing operation that forms either a line cut or hole
Perforating- piercing a large number of closely spaced holes
Notching- removes segments from along the edge of an existing product
Nibbling- a contour is progressively cut by producing a series of overlapping slits or notches

14. Sheet-metal Cutting Operations

15. Types of Piercing and Blanking
Shaving- finishing operation in which a small amount of metal is sheared away from the edge of an already blanked part
Cutoff- a punch and a die are used to separate a stamping or other product from a strip of stock
Dinking- used to blank shapes from low- strength materials such as rubber, fiber, or cloth

16. Sheet-metal Shaving Operations
Figure The dinking process.
Figure The shaving process.

17. Tools and Dies for Piercing and Blanking
Basic components of a piercing and blanking die set are: punch, die, and stripper plate
Punches and dies should be properly aligned so that a uniform clearance is maintained around the entire border
Punches are normally made from low-distortion or air-hardenable tool steel
Figure The basic components of piercing and blanking dies.

18. Blanking Operations
Figure Blanking with a square-faced punch (left) and one containing angular shear (right). Note the difference in maximum force and contact stroke. The total work (the are under the curve) is the same for both processes.

19. Design for Piercing and Blanking
Design rules
Diameters of pierced holes should not be less than the thickness of the metal with a minimum 0f 0.3 mm (0.025”)
Minimum distance between holes or the edge of the stock should be at least equal to the metal thickness
The width of any projection or slot should be at least 1 times the metal thickness and never less than 2.5 mm (3/32”)
Keep tolerances as large as possible
Arrange the pattern of parts on the strip to minimize scrap

20. Design Clearance

21. Clearance Calculation
The recommended clearance is:
C = at
Where c – clearance, in (mm); a – allowance; and t = stock thickness, in (mm).
Allowance a is determined according to type of metal.
From Mikell P. Groover “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”.

22. Design Die and Punch Sizes
For a round blank of diameter Db is determined as:
Blank punch diameter = Db - 2c
Blank die diameter = Db
For a round hole (piercing) of diameter Dh is determined as:
Hole punch diameter = Dh
Hole die diameter = Db + 2c

23. Cutting Forces
Cutting forces are used to determine size of the press needed.
F = StL
Where S – shear strength of the sheet metal, lb/in2 (Mpa); t – sheet thickness in. (mm); and L – length of the cut edge, in. (mm).
In blanking, punching, slotting, and similar operations, L is the perimeter length of blank or hole being cut.
Note: the equation assumes that the entire cut along sheared edge length is made at the same time. In this case, the cutting force is a maximum.

24. Angular Clearance
for slug or blank to drop through the die, the die opening must have an angular clearance of 0.25 to 1.50 on each side.

25. Example for Calculating Clearance and Force
Round disk of 3.0” dia. is to be blanked from a half-hard cold-rolled sheet of 1/8” with shear strength = 45,000 lb/in2. Determine (a) punch and die diameters, and (b) blanking force.
(a).
From table , a = 0.075,
so clearance c = 0.075(0.125) = ”.
Die opening diameter = 3.0”
Punch diameter = 3 – 2(0.0094) = in
(b).
Assume the entire perimeter of the part is blanked at one time.
L = p Db = 3.14(3) = 9.426”
F = 45,000(9.426)(0.125) = 53,021 = tons
What is the difference if the operation is a piercing?

26. 17.3 Bending
Bending is the plastic deformation of metals about a linear axis with little or no change in the surface area
Forming- multiple bends are made with a single die
Drawing and stretching- axes of deformation are not linear or are not independent
Springback is the “unbending” that occurs after a metal has been deformed
Figure (Top) Nature of a bend in sheet metal showing tension on the outside and compression on the inside. (Bottom) The upper portion of the bend region, viewed from the side, shows how the center portion will thin more than the edges.

27. Example of Bending

28. Design for Bending
Several factors are important in specifying a bending operation
Determine the smallest bend radius that can be formed without cracking the metal
Metal ductility
Thickness of material
Figure Relationship between the minimum bend radius (relative to thickness) and the ductility of the metal being bent (as measured by the reduction in area in a uniaxial tensile test).

29. Considerations for Bending
If the punch radius is large and the bend angle is shallow, large amounts of springback are often encountered
The sharper the bend, the more likely the surfaces will be stressed beyond the yield point
Figure Bends should be made with the bend axis perpendicular to the rolling direction. When intersecting bends are made, both should be at an angle to the rolling direction, as shown.

30. Design Considerations
Determine the dimensions of a flat blank that will produce a bent part of the desired precision
Metal tends to thin when it is bent
Figure One method of determining the starting blank size (L) for several bending operations. Due to thinning, the product will lengthen during forming. l1, l2, and l3 are the desired product dimensions. See table to determine D based on size of radius R where t is the stock thickness.

31. Engineering Analysis of Bending
Bending radius R is normally specified on the inside of the part, rather than at the neutral axis. The bending radius is determined by the radius on the tooling used for bending.
Bending Allowance: If the bend radius is small relative to sheet thickness, the metal tends to stretch during bending.
BA = 2pA(R + Kbat)/360
Where BA – bend allowance, in. (mm); A - bend angle, degrees; R – bend radius, in. (mm); t – sheet thickness; and Kba - factor to estimate stretching. According to [1], if R < 2t, Kba = 0.33; and if R>=2t, Kba =0.5. [1]: Hoffman, E.G., Fundamentals of Tool Design, 2nd ed.

32. Engineering Analysis of Bending
Spring back: When the bending pressure is removed at the end of deformation, elastic energy remains in the bend part, causing it to recover partially toward its original shape.
SB = (A’ – Ab’)/Ab’
Where SB – springback; A’ – included angle of sheet-metal part; and Ab’ – included angle of bending tool, degrees.
From Mikell P. Groover “Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing”.

33. Engineering Analysis of Bending
Bending Force: The force required to perform bending depends on the geometry of the punch and die and the strength, thickness, and width of the sheet metal. The maximum bending force can be estimated by means of the following equation based on bending of a simple beam:
F = (KbfTSwt2)/D
Where F – bending force, lb (N),; TS – tensile strength of the sheet metal, lb/in2. (Mpa); t – sheet thickness, in. (mm); and D – die opening dimension. Kbf – a constant that counts for differences in an actual bending processes. For V-bending Kbf =1.33, and for edge bending Kbf =0.33

34. Example for Sheet-metal Bending
Metal to be bent with a modulus of elasticity E = 30x106 lb/in2., yield strength Y = 40,000lb/in2 , and tensile strength TS = 65,000 lb/in2. Determine (a) starting blank size, and (b) bending force if V-die will be used with a die opening dimension D = 1.0in.
(a)
W = 1.75” and the length of the part is: BA.
R/t = 0.187/0.125 = 1.5 < 2.0, so Kba = 0.33
For an included angle A’ = 1200, then A = 600
BA = 2pA(R + Kbat)/360 =2p60( x 0.125)/360 = 0.239”
Length of the bank is = 2.739”
(b) Force:
F = (KbfTSwt2)/D
= 1.33 (65,000)(1.75)(0.125)2/1.0
= 2,364 lb

35. 17.4 Drawing and Stretching Processes
Drawing refers to the family of operations where plastic flow occurs over a curved axis and the flat sheet is formed into a three-dimensional part with a depth more than several times the thickness of the metal
Application: a wide range of shapes, from cups to large automobile and aerospace panels.

36. 17.4 Drawing and Stretching Processes
Types of Drawing and Stretching
Spinning
Shear forming or flow turning
Stretch forming
Deep drawing and shallow drawing
Rubber-tool forming
Sheet hydroforming
Tube hydroforming
Hot drawing
High-energy-rate forming
Ironing
Embossing
Superplastic sheet forming

37. 17.4 Spinning Spinning is a cold forming operation
Sheet metal is rotated and progressively shaped over a male form, or mandrel
Produces rotationally symmetrical shapes
Cones, spheres, hemispheres, cylinders, bells, and parabolas

38. Spinning
Figure (Above) Progressive stages in the spinning of a sheet metal product.

39. Spinning

40. Spinning
Figure (Below) Two stages in the spinning of a metal reflector. (Courtesy of Spincraft, Inc. New Berlin, WI.)

41. Spinning
Tooling cost can be extremely low. The form block can often be made of hardwood or even plastic because of localized compression from metal.
With automation, spinning can also be used to mass- produce high-volume items such as lamp reflectors, cooking utensils, bowls, and bells.
Spinning is usually considered for simple shapes that can be directly withdrawn from a one-piece form. More complex shapes, such as those with reentrant angles, can be spun over multipiece or offset forms.

42. Shear Forming Shear forming is a version of spinning
A modification of the spinning process in which each element of the blank maintains its distance from the axis of rotation.
No circumferential shrinkage
Wall thickness of product, tc will vary with the angle of the particular region:
tc = tb(sin a)
where tb is the thickness of the starting blank.
Reductions in wall thickness as high as 8:1 are possible, but the limit is usually set at about 5:1, or 80%

43. Shearing Forming

44. Direct Shear Forming
Material being formed moves in the same direction as the roller
Figure Schematic representation of the basic shear-forming process.

45. Reverse Shear Forming
Material being formed moves in the opposite direction as the roller
By controlling the position and feed of the forming roller, the reverse process can be used to shape con- cave, convex, or conical parts without a matching form block.

46. Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing
Drawing is typically used to form solid-bottom cylindrical or rectangular containers from sheet metal.
When depth of the product is greater than its diameter, it is known “Deep drawing”.
When depth of the product is less than its diameter, it is known “shallow drawing”.
Figure Schematic of the deep-drawing process.

47. Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing
Key variables:
Blank and punch diameter
Punch and die radius
Clearance
Thickness of the blank
Lubrication
Hold-down pressure
Figure 17-4 Flow of material during deep drawing. Note the circumferential compression as the radius is pulled inward

48. Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing
During drawing, the material is pulled inward, so its circumference decrease. Since the volume of material must be the same,
V0 = Vf
the decrease in circumferential dimension must be compensated by a increase in another dimension, such as thickness or radial length.
Since the material is thin, an alternative is to relieve the circumferential compression by bulking or wrinkling.
The wrinkling formation can be suppressed by compressing the sheet between die and blankholder service.

49. Deep Drawing and Shallow Drawing
Once a drawing process has been designed and the tooling manufactured, the primary variable for process adjustment is hold-down pressure or blankhoder force.
If the force is too low, wrinkling may occur at the start of the stroke. If it is too high, there is too much restrain, and the descending punch will tear the disk or some portion of the already-formed cup wall.

50. Deep Drawing
Thin
As cup depth increases or material is thin, there is an increased tendency for forming the defects.
Thick
Good blankholder force

51. Limitations of Deep Drawing
Wrinkling and tearing are typical limits to drawing operations
Trimming may be used to reach final dimensions
Figure Pierced blanked, and drawn part before and after trimming

52. Defects in Drawing Parts

53. Deep Drawing
Two alternatives for converting drawn parts into deeper cups:
Forward redraw – the material undergoes reverse bending as it flows into the die.
Reverse redraw – the stating cup is placed over a tubular die, and the punch acts to turn it inside out.
Cup redrawing to further reduce diameter and increase wall height. (Left) forward redraw; (right) reverse redraw.

54. Properties of Sheet Material
Tensile strength of the material is important in determining which forming operations are appropriate.
Sheet metal is often anisotropic- properties vary with direction or orientation. A metal with low-yield, high-tensile, and high-uniform elongation has a good mechanical property for sheet-forming operations.
Majority of failures during forming occur due to thinning or fracture
Strain analysis can be used to determine the best orientation for forming

55. Engineering Analysis of Drawing

56. Engineering Analysis of Drawing

57. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
It is important to assess the limitation of the amount of drawing that can be accomplished.
Measures of Drawing:
1) Drawing ratio (cylinder) DR = Db/Dp
Where Db – blank diameter, Dp – punch diameter
The greater the ratio, the more severe is the drawing.
An approximate upper limit on the drawing ratio is a value of The actual limiting value for a given drawing depends on punch and die corner radii (Dp and Dd), friction conditions, depth of draw, and characteristics of the sheet metal (ductility, degree of directinality of strength in the metal).

58. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
2) Reduction r (another way to characterize a given drawing)
r = (Db - Dp )/Db
It is very closely related to drawing ratio. Consistent with Dr <= 2.0, the value of r should be less than 0.5.
3) Thickness-to-diameter ratio:
t/Db
Where t – thickness of the starting blank, Db – blank diameter.
The ratio t/Db is greater than 1%. As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases. If DR , r, t/Db are exceeded by the design, blank must be draw in two or more steps, sometimes with annealing between steps.

59. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
Example: Cup Drawing
For a cylindrical cup with inside diameter = 3.0” and height = 2.0”, its starting blank size Db = 5.5”, and its thickness t = 3/32”, please indicate its manufacturing feasibility.
Solution:
DR = Db/Dp = 5.5/3.0 = <2.0
r = (Db - Dp )/Db = (5.5 – 3.0)/5.5 = 45.45% < 50%
t/Db = (3/32)/5.5 = > 1%
So the drawing operation is feasible.

60. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
Drawing Force
F = pDpt(TS)(Db/Dp – 0.7)
Where F – drawing force, lb(N); t – thickness of blank, in. (mm); TS - tensile strength, ib/in2 (Mpa); Db and D p – starting blank diameter and punch diameter, in. (mm) – a correction factor for friction. The equation is the estimation of the maximum force in the drawing.
The drawing force varies throughout the downward movement of the punch, usually reaching its maximum value at about one-third the length of the punch stroke.
Clearance c: about 10% than the stock thickness (t)
c = 1.1 t

61. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
Holding Force
Fh = 0.015Yp[Db2 – (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2]
Where Fh – holding force in drawing, ib (N); Y – yield strength of the sheet metal, lb/in2 (Mpa); t – starting stock thickness, in. (mm); Rd – die conner radius, in. (mm). The holding force is usually about one-third the drawing force [1].
[1]: Wick, C., et al., “Tool and Manufacturing Engineers, 4th ed. Vol. II.

62. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
Example Forces in Drawing
Determine the (a) drawing force, and (2) holding force for the case in previous example for feasibility, where tensile strength of the metal = 70,000 lb/in 2 and yield strength = 40,000 lb/in 2 , the die corner radius = 0.25”.
Solution:
(a) F = pDpt(TS)(Db/Dp – 0.7)
=p(3.0)(3/32)(70,000)(5.5/3.0 – 0.7)
=70,097 lb
(b) Fh = 0.015Yp[Db2 – (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2]
= 0.015(40,000)p{5.52 – [ (3/32) + 2(0.25)]2}
= 1,885 (30.25 – 13.74)
= 31,121 lb

63. Engineering Analysis of Drawing
Blank Size Determination
Assume that the volume of the final product is the same as the that of the starting sheet-metal blank and the thinning of the part wall is negligible.
For a cup with its height H and the same diameters Dp in the bottom and top:
pDb2/4 = pDp2/4 + pDp H, and
Db = SQRT(Dp2 + 4Dp H)

64. Summary
Sheet forming processes can be grouped in several broad categories
Shearing
Bending
Drawing
Basic sheet forming operations involve a press, punch, or ram and a set of dies
Material properties, geometry of the starting material, and the geometry of the desired final product play important roles in determining the best process

65. HW (Not required to turn in)
Review questions (page ):
1, 2, 10, 20, 22, 26