2. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Micro-Organizational Behavior Leadership (cont.)

3. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. A Few Questions Does leadership matter?Does leadership matter? –For organizations –For people in organizations Are leaders born or made (nature/nurture)?Are leaders born or made (nature/nurture)? Is leadership equally important in all cultures?Is leadership equally important in all cultures? Are leaders and managers the same thing?Are leaders and managers the same thing?

4. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Leadership doesn’t matter? Salancik and PfefferSalancik and Pfeffer –All leaders are fundamentally the same –There are internal constraints on leader behavior (roles) –External factors are more important in determining organizational performance (e.g. competition, scarce resources, government regulation, etc.)

5. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Leadership does matter! Research suggests that leadership explains about 10% of an organizations performanceResearch suggests that leadership explains about 10% of an organizations performance Even if good leadership doesn’t matter, bad leadership definitely doesEven if good leadership doesn’t matter, bad leadership definitely does Not all leaders are alike, nor are many managerial jobsNot all leaders are alike, nor are many managerial jobs We’re not just talking about CEO’sWe’re not just talking about CEO’s

6. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Leadership - Key Terms Leadership: The exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals.Leadership: The exercise of influence by one member of a group or organization over other members to help the group or organization achieve its goals. Leader: An individual who is able to influence group or organizational members to help the group or organization achieve its goals.Leader: An individual who is able to influence group or organizational members to help the group or organization achieve its goals.

7. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Leadership - Key Terms Formal Leader: A member of an organization who is given authority to influence other organizational members to achieve organizational goals.Formal Leader: A member of an organization who is given authority to influence other organizational members to achieve organizational goals. Informal Leader: An organizational member with no formal authority to influence others, but who has special skills or talents to influence others.Informal Leader: An organizational member with no formal authority to influence others, but who has special skills or talents to influence others.

8. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Approaches to Understanding Effective Leadership Trait ApproachTrait Approach Behavior ApproachBehavior Approach Fiedler’s Contingency ModelFiedler’s Contingency Model Path-Goal TheoryPath-Goal Theory Vroom and Yetton ModelVroom and Yetton Model Leader-Member Exchange TheoryLeader-Member Exchange Theory Charismatic/Visionary TheoryCharismatic/Visionary Theory

9. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Trait Theory of Leadership An attempt to identify specific characteristics (physical, mental, personality) associated with leadership success. The theory relies on research that relates various traits to certain success criteria.

10. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. “Traits” that have been the focus of leadership research IntelligencePersonality Physical Characteristics Supervisory Ability

11. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Traits Associated with Leadership Effectiveness IntelligencePersonalityAbilities JudgmentAdaptabilityAbility to enlist cooperation DecisivenessAlertnessCooperativeness KnowledgeCreativityPopularity & prestige Fluency of speechPersonal integritySociability Self-confidenceSocial participation Emotional balanceTact, diplomacy and Control Independence

12. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Trait Theory - Criticisms For at least some traits, it is not clear which comes first, being in a leadership position or possessing the trait in question.For at least some traits, it is not clear which comes first, being in a leadership position or possessing the trait in question. The trait approach provides little guidance concerning what advice or training to give current or soon-to-be leaders.The trait approach provides little guidance concerning what advice or training to give current or soon-to-be leaders.

13. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Behavioral Approaches In the late 1940s, researchers began to explore the notion that how a person acts determines that person’s leadership effectiveness. Instead of searching for traits, these researchers examined leader behaviors and their impact on the performance and satisfaction of followers.

14. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. The Michigan Studies The Michigan Studies were conducted to determine the pattern of leadership behavior that result in effective group performance.The Michigan Studies were conducted to determine the pattern of leadership behavior that result in effective group performance. The researchers found that leadership consists of two separate dimensions:The researchers found that leadership consists of two separate dimensions: –Job-centered leader behavior. –Employee-centered leader behavior.

15. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. The Michigan Studies Job-Centered Leader Behavior Employee-Centered Leader Behavior Attempts to build work group performance by paying attention to the efficient completion of the task. Primary emphasis is on the task. Attempts to build work group performance by paying attention to the human aspects of the group. Primary emphasis is on the person. The studies suggested that a leader could exhibit either behavior, but not both at the same time.

16. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. The Ohio State Studies The Ohio State Studies were conducted at about the same time as the Michigan Studies.The Ohio State Studies were conducted at about the same time as the Michigan Studies. The Ohio State Studies found that leaders engaged in two separate sets of leadership behaviors, referred to as consideration and initiating structure.The Ohio State Studies found that leaders engaged in two separate sets of leadership behaviors, referred to as consideration and initiating structure.

17. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. The Ohio State Studies Consideration Initiating Structure Involves being concerned with subordinates’ feelings and respecting subordinates’ ideas. Involves clearly defining the leader-subordinate roles so that subordinates know what is expected of them. Unlike the Michigan Studies variables, consideration and initiating structure were not thought to be on the same continuum. Instead, they were seen as independent dimensions of leadership behavior.

18. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Why Trait and Behavior Approaches Fall Short Behavioral approaches attempt to specify which kinds of leader behaviors are necessary for effective leadership. Behavioral approaches attempt to specify which kinds of leader behaviors are necessary for effective leadership. Trait approaches consider personal characteristics of the leader that may be important in achieving success in a leadership role. Trait approaches consider personal characteristics of the leader that may be important in achieving success in a leadership role. A shortcoming of both of these approaches is that they fail to take into account the interaction between people, tasks, and environment. A shortcoming of both of these approaches is that they fail to take into account the interaction between people, tasks, and environment.

19. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Situational Theory of Leadership An approach to leadership advocating the leaders understand their own behavior, the behavior of their subordinates, and the situation before utilizing a particular leadership style. This approach requires diagnostic skills in human behavior on the part of the leader.

20. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. The Contingency Leadership Model Description of the ModelDescription of the Model –The contingency model of leadership effectiveness was developed by Fiedler and postulates that the performance of groups is dependent on the interaction between leadership style and situational favorableness. Leadership style is measured by the Least-Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC).Leadership style is measured by the Least-Preferred Coworker Scale (LPC).

21. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Fiedler’s Contingency Theory The theory that leader effectiveness is determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and by the situation in which leaders find themselves.The theory that leader effectiveness is determined by both the personal characteristics of leaders and by the situation in which leaders find themselves.

22. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Fiedler's’ Situational Characteristics Leader-Member Relations - The relationship between a leader and his or her followers.Leader-Member Relations - The relationship between a leader and his or her followers. Task Structure - The extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined.Task Structure - The extent to which the work to be performed by a group is clearly defined. Position Power - The amount of formal authority a leader has.Position Power - The amount of formal authority a leader has.

23. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Fiedler’s Theory An evaluation of the three situational characteristics will suggest that either a relationship-oriented leadership style or a task-oriented leadership style is best.An evaluation of the three situational characteristics will suggest that either a relationship-oriented leadership style or a task-oriented leadership style is best.

24. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Favorability of Situations for Leading

25. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Relationship-Oriented Leadership Style Best in situations where the first priority is to develop good relationships with subordinates and the second priority is to get the job done.Best in situations where the first priority is to develop good relationships with subordinates and the second priority is to get the job done.

26. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Task-Oriented Leadership Style Best in situations where the first priority is getting the job done and the second priority is developing good relationships with subordinates.Best in situations where the first priority is getting the job done and the second priority is developing good relationships with subordinates.

27. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Path-Goal Theory A theory which describes how leaders can motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals and the kinds of behaviors leaders can engage in to motivate followers.A theory which describes how leaders can motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals and the kinds of behaviors leaders can engage in to motivate followers.

28. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Path-Goal Theory Effective leaders motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals.Effective leaders motivate their followers to achieve group and organizational goals. Effective leaders make sure that they have control over outcomes their subordinates desire.Effective leaders make sure that they have control over outcomes their subordinates desire.

29. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Path-Goal Theory Effective leaders reward subordinates for performing at a high level or achieving their work goals by giving them desired outcomes.Effective leaders reward subordinates for performing at a high level or achieving their work goals by giving them desired outcomes. Effective leaders raise their subordinates’ beliefs about their ability to achieve their work goals and perform at a high level.Effective leaders raise their subordinates’ beliefs about their ability to achieve their work goals and perform at a high level.

30. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Path-Goal Theory In determining how to treat their subordinates and what behaviors to engage in, effective leaders take into account their subordinates’ characteristics and the type of work they do.In determining how to treat their subordinates and what behaviors to engage in, effective leaders take into account their subordinates’ characteristics and the type of work they do.

31. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. Path-Goal Theory Directive BehaviorDirective Behavior Supportive BehaviorSupportive Behavior Participative BehaviorParticipative Behavior Achievement-Oriented BehaviorAchievement-Oriented Behavior

32. Copyright 1999 by Brent Smith, Ph.D. The Path-Goal Model Follower/Subordinate Characteristics - Locus of control - Experience - Ability Leader Behavior/Styles - Directive - Supportive - Participative - Achievement-oriented Followers/Subordinates - Perceptions - Motivation Environmental Factors - Tasks - Formal authority systems - Work group Outcome - Satisfaction - Performance