1. Carbon Compounds

2. I.Chemistry of Carbon A.Organic Chemistry – study of carbon compounds 1.All organic compounds contain carbon! 2.Examples: carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA)

3. B.Carbon Structure 1.A C atom has 6 electrons, 2 in the 1 st shell, and four valence/outer electrons

4. 2.Carbon can make four covalent bonds, and can bond with many types of elements 3.Carbon bonds most often with O, H, and N. 4.Carbon is able to make 4 single, 2 double, and 1 triple covalent bonds with one other atom.

5. C.Carbon can form millions of different large and complex structures.

6. II.Macromolecules A.Macromolecules are huge, complex molecules made of similar repeating units. 1.Polymer = macromolecule 2.Monomer = smaller units that fit together to form polymers (macromolecules)

7. B.Dehydration Reaction – connects monomers to from polymers 1.A molecule of water is produced when two monomers are linked.

8. C.Hydrolysis – opposite of a dehydration reaction 1.Polymers are broken down into its monomers 2.A water molecule is consumed. Hydro = water Lysis = break

9. III.Types of Macromolecules A.Carbohydrates 1.Functions: main source of energy for living things (quick energy) Plants and Animals also use certain carbohydrates as structural building materials

10. 2.Monomer = monosaccharide Monosaccharides are single, simple sugars Glucose (main), fructose, galactose 3.Double sugar = disaccharide Two monosaccharides linked together Sucrose 4.Polymer = polysaccharide (carbohydrate) Hundreds of monosaccharides linked together Starch, Cellulose

11. B.Lipids – substances not soluble in water 1.Functions: Store energy for long periods of time Certain lipids are parts of biological membranes Steroids are lipids that are chemical messengers

12. 2.Most lipids are formed when a glycerol molecule combines with fatty acids 3.Fats, oils, waxes

13. Saturated Fats – only single bonds are present between carbon atoms of fatty acids (solid fats) Unsaturated Fats – 1 or more double bonds between carbon atoms of fatty acids (liquid fats – oils)

14. 4.Phospholipids – glycerol with 2 fatty acids attached a phosphate group Make up biological (cell) membranes

15. C.Nucleic Acids 1.Monomer = Nucleotide; made of 3 parts: 5-carbon sugar Phosphate group Nitrogenous base (N-base)

16. 2.Polymer = Nucleic Acids Store and transmit genetic (hereditary) information Two types: RNA & DNA RNA = Ribonucleic Acid DNA = Deoxyribonucleic Acid

17. D.Proteins 1.Monomer = amino acid 2.Polymer = polypeptide 3.Protein = 1 more polypeptides 4.Amino Acid Structure - all 20 amino acids have same basic structure with one major difference, the R group

18. 5.The R group determines the function of the protein. 6.Protein function varies greatly Control rate of chemical reactions Regulate cell processes Structural components (muscle, bone) Transport substances Fight disease

19. 7.Four levels of protein organization: Primary Structure: order/sequence of amino acids Secondary Structure: how sections of the amino acid chain can twists and fold Tertiary Structure: entire amino acid chain completely folded Quaternary Structure: 2 or more folded chains come together to form a complex

21. Metabolism I.Metabolism is the totality of an organism’s chemical reactions A.A metabolic pathway begins with a specific molecule and ends with a product B.Each step is catalyzed by a specific enzyme Enzyme 1Enzyme 2Enzyme 3 Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3Product A B CD

22. II.Structure of ATP A.ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) – shuttles energy for cells B.ATP is composed of ribose (a sugar), adenine (a nitrogenous base), and three phosphate groups

23. II.Speeding up Reactions A.A catalyst is a chemical agent that speeds up a reaction without being consumed by the reaction B.An enzyme is a catalytic protein C.A ribozyme is catalyst made of RNA

24. III.Activation Energy A.Every chemical reaction between molecules involves the breaking and forming of bonds 1.Reactants absorb energy to break bonds. 2.Products release energy to form bonds. Sucrase Sucrose (C 12 H 22 O 11 ) Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) Fructose (C 6 H 12 O 6 )

25. B.The initial energy needed to start a chemical reaction is called the free energy of activation, or activation energy (E A ) 1.Enzymes catalyze reactions by lowering the E A barrier

27. IV.Enzymes are Substrate Specific A.The reactant that an enzyme acts on is the enzyme’s substrate B.The active site is the region on the enzyme where only one type of substrate binds (shape!)

29. V.Effecting Enzyme Activity A.Temperature & pH 1.Each enzyme has an optimal temperature and pH in which it can function 2.Optimal conditions favor the most active shape for the enzyme molecule 3.Unfavorable conditions lead to denaturation (unfolding or changing of enzyme shape)