1. Rhetoric In the study of rhetoric, the focus should be how a writer uses elements of language – diction, detail, image, tone, syntax, logical ordering, juxtaposition, or contrast, for example – to achieve a specific purpose. Rhetoric is the art of using words to persuade in writing or speaking. All types of writing – fiction, nonfiction, drama, and poetry – seek to persuade, and rhetoricians study these genres for their persuasive qualities.

2. Rhetorical Theory Rhetorical Theory Argument is used here to designate the entire persuasive essay. Writing argumentative essays is a complex process that addresses with a specific purpose a targeted audience. The process requires reasoning, a kind of controlled thinking in which you come to accept or reject an idea based on its validity and truth. Argument is used here to designate the entire persuasive essay. Writing argumentative essays is a complex process that addresses with a specific purpose a targeted audience. The process requires reasoning, a kind of controlled thinking in which you come to accept or reject an idea based on its validity and truth.

3. Effective arguments involve… key issues key issues anticipated objections anticipated objections gathered support gathered support logical reasoning to sway the thinking of the audience. logical reasoning to sway the thinking of the audience.

4. An effective argument is a well-constructed presentation of ideas that takes a stand about an issue – often called the thesis statement or claim – and supports that thesis statement with various examples of evidence. An effective argument is a well-constructed presentation of ideas that takes a stand about an issue – often called the thesis statement or claim – and supports that thesis statement with various examples of evidence. Arguments are consciously structured using logical lines or reasoning such as order of importance, chain of reasoning, cause and effect, rebuttal, concession/refutation, and process analysis. Arguments are consciously structured using logical lines or reasoning such as order of importance, chain of reasoning, cause and effect, rebuttal, concession/refutation, and process analysis. Arguments also include the various modes of discourse to support their claims with a combination of both logical (logos) and emotional (pathos) evidence to establish their credibility as writers or their ethical appeals (ethos). Arguments also include the various modes of discourse to support their claims with a combination of both logical (logos) and emotional (pathos) evidence to establish their credibility as writers or their ethical appeals (ethos).

5. ELEMENTS OF ARGUMENTATION Purpose Purpose Audience Audience Appeals Appeals

6. Purpose The purpose is the specific reason or reasons for the writing. It conveys what the readers have to gain by reading the essay. Purpose is the objective or goal that the writer wishes to establish. The purpose is the specific reason or reasons for the writing. It conveys what the readers have to gain by reading the essay. Purpose is the objective or goal that the writer wishes to establish.

7. The Writer’s purpose might be to: Support a cause Support a cause Promote change Promote change Refute a theory Refute a theory Stimulate interest Stimulate interest Win agreement Win agreement Arouse sympathy Arouse sympathy Provoke anger Provoke anger

8. Audience The audience is the writer’s targeted reader or readers. The relationship between the writer and the audience is critical. Focus on, kind of information, language, and overall approach that will appeal to a specific audience. The audience is the writer’s targeted reader or readers. The relationship between the writer and the audience is critical. Focus on, kind of information, language, and overall approach that will appeal to a specific audience.

9. Questions to consider: Who exactly is the audience? Who exactly is the audience? What do they know? What do they know? What do they believe? What do they believe? What do they expect? What do they expect? How will the audience disagree with argument? How will the audience disagree with argument? What do they need to be addressed? What do they need to be addressed? How can /should jargon be used? How can /should jargon be used? Should language be formal, factual, and objective – or, familiar, anecdotal, and personal Should language be formal, factual, and objective – or, familiar, anecdotal, and personal

10. Appeals of Logic, Emotion, and Ethics Logical Appeals (logos) Logical Appeals (logos) Emotional Appeals (pathos) Emotional Appeals (pathos) Ethical appeals (ethos) Ethical appeals (ethos)

11. Logical Appeals (logos) Cite traditional culture Cite traditional culture Cite commonly held beliefs Cite commonly held beliefs Allude to history, religious texts, great literature, or mythology Allude to history, religious texts, great literature, or mythology Provide testimony Provide testimony Draw analogies/create metaphors Draw analogies/create metaphors Order chronologically Order chronologically Provide evidence Provide evidence Classify evidence Classify evidence Cite authorities Cite authorities Quote research Quote research Use facts Use facts Theorize about cause and effect Theorize about cause and effect Argue from precedent Argue from precedent

12. Emotional Appeals (pathos) Use language that involves the senses Use language that involves the senses Include a bias or prejudice Include a bias or prejudice Include an anecdote Include an anecdote Explore euphemisms Explore euphemisms Use description Use description Use figurative language Use figurative language Develop tone Develop tone Experiment with informal language Experiment with informal language

13. Ethical appeals (ethos) Show written voice in the argument Show written voice in the argument Make the audience believe that the writer is trustworthy Make the audience believe that the writer is trustworthy Demonstrate that the writer put in research time. Demonstrate that the writer put in research time. Support reasons with appropriate, logical evidence Support reasons with appropriate, logical evidence Present a carefully crafted and edited argument Present a carefully crafted and edited argument Demonstrate the writer knows and respects the audience Show concern about communicating with the audience. Demonstrate the writer knows and respects the audience Show concern about communicating with the audience. Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable