1. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Chapter 2: Introduction to Cells

2. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Introduction to Cells  Cells – the smallest living units in our bodies  There are approximately 70 TRILLION cells in our bodies! Each one is a separate life!  Organelles – “little organs” – carry on essential functions of cells  Enzymes – direct chemical reactions in cells  Metabolism – the sum of all chemical reactions in the cell

3. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Introduction to Cells  Cells have three main components  Plasma membrane  Cytoplasm  Nucleus

4. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Structure of a Generalized Cell Figure 2.1

5. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Plasma Membrane  Plasma membrane defines the extent of the cell  Structure of membrane  Fluid mosaic model (lipid bilayer)  Types of membrane proteins  Integral proteins – firmly imbedded in, or attached to lipid bilayer  Peripheral proteins – attach to membrane surface

6. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Our bodies are ONLY made of cells, extracellular fluids containing nutrients (a bunch of chemicals) and what is called extra cellular matrix which is manufactured by cells! Extracellular matrix includes, bone, tendons, ligaments, blood and other connective tissues. Cells are responsible for maintaining the composition of these tissues.

7. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Plasma Membrane Figure 2.2a

8. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Plasma Membrane Monday  Functions – relate to location at the interface of cell’s exterior and interior  Provides barrier against substances outside cell  Some plasma membranes act as receptors

9. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Plasma Membrane  Determines which substances enter or leave the cell  Membrane is selectively permeable  Diffusion – molecules move from a region where they are more concentrated to an area where they are less concentrated  Osmosis – the diffusion of water across a membrane Membrane Structure

10. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Endocytosis  Endocytosis  Mechanism by which particles enter cells  Phagocytosis – “cell eating”  Pinocytosis – “cell drinking”  NOTE: Clathrin is a protein that causes bending of the cell membrane in order for a molecule to be captured by endocytosis  Integral Proteins are involved in transport mechanisms across the plasma membrane

11. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Receptor-mediated Endocytosis  Receptor-mediated endocytosis  Plasma proteins bind to certain molecules  Invaginates and forms a coated pit  Pinches off to become a coated vesicle  NOTE: This is the method by which insulin and cholesterol enter cells!

12. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Two Types of Endocytosis Figure 2.3

13. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Exocytosis  Exocytosis – a mechanism that moves substances out of the cell  Substance is enclosed in a vesicle  The vesicle migrates to the plasma membrane  Proteins from the vesicles (v-SNAREs) bind with membrane proteins (t-SNAREs)  The lipid layers from both membranes bind, and the vesicle releases its contents to the outside of the cell

14. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Exocytosis Figure 2.4 This is how cells release hormones, enzymes and extra cellular matrix!

15. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Cytoplasm  Cytoplasm – lies internal to plasma membrane  Consists of cytosol, organelles, and inclusions  Cytosol (cytoplasmic matrix)  Jelly-like fluid in which other cellular elements are suspended  Consists of water, ions, and enzymes

16. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Organelles  Ribosomes – constructed of proteins and ribosomal RNA  Site of protein synthesis  NOTE: Most antibiotics work by blocking bacterial protein synthesis. The antibiotic works on one of the subunits to prevent bacteria from multiplying!

17. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Organelles  Endoplasmic reticulum – “network within the cytoplasm”  Rough ER – ribosomes stud the external surfaces  Smooth ER – consists of tubules in a branching network  No ribosomes are attached; therefore no protein synthesis

18. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosomes Figure 2.5

19. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.6 Assembly of Proteins at the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

20. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Organelles  Golgi apparatus – a stack of three to 10 disk- shaped envelopes  Sorts products of rough ER and sends them to proper destination  Products of rough ER move through the Golgi from the convex (cis) to the concave (trans) side

21. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Role of the Golgi Apparatus in Packaging Products of Rough ER Figure 2.8

22. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Organelles  Lysosomes – membrane-walled sacs containing digestive enzymes  Digest unwanted substances  Peroxisomes – membrane-walled sacs of oxidase enzymes  Enzymes neutralize free radicals and break down poisons  Break down long chains of fatty acids  Are numerous in the liver and kidneys

23. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mitochondria  Mitochondria – generate most of the cell’s energy; most complex organelle  More abundant in energy-requiring cells, like muscle cells and sperm Figure 2.10

24. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Organelles  Cytoskeleton – “cell skeleton” – an elaborate network of rods  Contains three types of rods  Microtubules – cylindrical structures made of proteins  Microfilaments – filaments of contractile protein actin  Intermediate filaments – protein fibers

25. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoskeleton: Microtubule Figure 2.11a

26. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoskeleton: Microfilament Figure 2.11b

27. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoskeleton: Intermediate Filament Figure 2.11c

28. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Organelles  Centrosomes and centrioles  Centrosome – a spherical structure in the cytoplasm  Composed of centrosome matrix and centrioles  Centrioles – paired cylindrical bodies  Consists of 27 short microtubules  Act in forming cilia  Necessary for karyokinesis (nuclear division)

29. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytoplasmic Inclusions  Temporary structures  Not present in all cell types  May consist of pigments, crystals of protein, and food stores  Lipid droplets – found in liver cell and fat cells  Glycosomes – store sugar in the form of glycogen

30. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Nucleus  The nucleus – “central core” or “kernel” – control center of cell  DNA directs the cell’s activities  Nucleus is approximate 5µm in diameter

31. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Nucleus Figure 2.13

32. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Nucleus  Nuclear envelope – two parallel membranes separated by fluid-filled space  Chromatin – composed of DNA and histone proteins  Condensed chromatin – contains tightly coiled strands of DNA

33. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Nucleus  Chromatin – composed of DNA and histone proteins  Extended chromatin – contains uncoiled strands of DNA  DNA’s genetic code is copied onto mRNA (transcription) while in “extended chromatin” form  Chromosomes – highest level of organization of chromatin  Contains a long molecule of DNA

34. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Nucleus  Nucleolus – “little nucleus” – in the center of the nucleus  Contains parts of several chromosomes  Site of ribosome subunit manufacture

35. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Diversity  Specialized functions of cells relates to  Shape of cell  Arrangement of organelles

36. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Diversity  Cells that connect body parts or cover organs  Fibroblast – makes and secretes protein component of fibers  Erythrocyte – concave shape provides surface area for uptake of the respiratory gases  Epithelial cell – hexagonal shape allows maximum number of epithelial cells to pack together

37. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cells that Connect Body Parts or Cover Organs Figure 2.16, step 1

38. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Diversity  Cells that move organs and body parts  Skeletal and smooth muscle cells  Elongated and filled with actin and myosin  Contract forcefully

39. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cells that Move Organs and Body Parts Figure 2.16, step 2

40. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Diversity  Cells that store nutrients  Fat cell – shape is produced by large fat droplet in its cytoplasm  Cells that fight disease  Macrophage – moves through tissue to reach infection sites

41. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cells that Store Nutrients and Cells that Fight Disease Figure 2.16, steps 3–4

42. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Diversity  Cells that gather information  Neuron – has long processes for receiving and transmitting messages Figure 2.16, step 5

43. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Diversity  Cells of reproduction  Oocyte (female) – largest cell in the body  Contains many copies of organelles for distribution to daughter cells  Sperm (male) – possesses long tail for swimming to the egg for fertilization Figure 2.16, step 6

44. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings  Cellular Death  It is theorized that telomeres may program cell death. These molecules reside on the ends of chromosomes. Each time the cell divides, some of these are lost. At some point (after so many cellular divisions) a “stop division” signal is given and the cell dies. This is called cellular senescence.