1. Rwanda a case study
Haruka Yoshitome
Hannah Wuzel

3. Historical Overview
Three tribes: Tutsi (“rich in cattle”), Hutu (“servant) and Twa (marginalized minority group)
Scramble for Africa - Rwanda becomes part of German East-Africa in the late 19th century
1916: Belgian occupation, creation of the mandate Ruanda-Urundi
1945: United Nations trust territory
Up from 1959: revolts by Hutu population, killing of large number of Tutsis
1962: independence for Rwanda and Burundi

4. Post-independence: Election of Hutu-dominated represen- tative government led by President Grégoire Kayibanda
1973: ethnic unrest and violence heightens - Juvénal Habyarimana, (Hutu) and his party, the MRND, seize power; totalitarian order
1990, October: Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), made up of Tutsi refugees and led by Paul Kagame, invades the country outbreak of civil war (regime: backed by France and francophone Africa, RPF: backed by Uganda)
1993, August: Arusha Accords power sharing agreement between Hutu-dominated government and Tutsi rebel group
1993, October , March: UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda under Jacques- Roger Booh-Booh and force commander Lieutenant-General Roméo Dallaire
1994, April 6: assassination of Habyarimana, triggering the genocide in the course of which hundreds of thousands Tutsi and moderate Hutu are massacred

5. The Genocide
„Why do we hate the Tutsis? They are cockroaches. Rwanda is Hutuland. We are the majority. Tutsis are the minority. Hutus must kill all the Tutsis. Stay alert - watch your neighbours.“
10,000 murdered every day, 400 every hour, 7 every minute
Media/radio propaganda urging the Hutus to eliminate all Tutsis and moderate Hutus
Genocide led by extremist groups Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi
April 11: Assassination of PM and her Belgian peacekeeping guards leads to Belgium withdrawing its troops from Rwanda
Desperate requests for reinforcement and permission to actively halt the genocide made by UNAMIR commanders were refused by Security Council
Human Rights Watch: over 500,000 people massacred over the course of 100 days; other estimates: more than 1 million dead

6. Actions Taken by the International Community
The UN is preoccupied with Bosnia and Somalia. 2 days before discussing about sending troops into Rwanda, 18 US peacekeepers were killed in Somalia.
USA - We can not support this. African States - You have to help! UNAMIR is created but with limited funds and sources
January 11th - UN General Dallaire informs DPKO and requests armed forces, however, this request is declined repeatedly
UNAMIR was established by Security Council resolution 872 (1993) of 5 October 1993 to help implement the Arusha Peace Agreement signed by the Rwandese parties on 4 August 1993. 
Its mandate included "ensuring the security of the capital city of Kigali; monitoring the ceasefire agreement, including establishment of an expanded demilitarized zone and demobilization procedures; monitoring the security situation during the final period of the transitional Government's mandate leading up to elections; assisting with mine-clearance; and assisting in the coordination of humanitarian assistance activities in conjunction with relief operations.
With the Hutu Extremists, Dallaire informs the Department of Peacekeeping Operations to request armed forces but is declined due to the reluctance of western cooperation.

7. a day before the genocide begins, the Security Council meets up to discuss whether UNAMIR’s mission should be renewed or not.
USA - mission should end unless transitional government (under the framework of the Arusha Accords) is created now
Other members - give them more time. Additional UN forces should be provided April 5th: Resolution 909, pulling out in 6 weeks unless transitional government forms
Criticism: non-permanent members are not sufficiently supplied with information on the situation, for example the requests made by Dallaire
WHY...
The Permanent countries especially the USA was reluctant to intervening and did not want the non-permanent members to support or impose more intervention when they can not afford the funds or people.

8. April 10th :Dallaire is told to prepare for withdrawal
April 12th : Belgium withdraws from UNAMIR.
UNAMIR’s current mission fails in terms of its present mandate. Soldiers are being exposed to unacceptable risks.
Against his will, Dallaire is told to prepare for withdrawal.
After learning that 10 men were killed, Belgium withdrawals.
The current mission of UNAMIR fails.

9. 3 Alternatives for UNAMIR
1. Massive deployment of troops and a change of mandate to bring ceasefire, law and order and end to the killings.
2. Scale down the UNAMIR to a size of around 270 troops, charging negotiations and humanitarian relief assistance
3. Complete withdrawal of UNAMIR
*non-permanent members were reliant on the council for information
The first one is what Dallaire insisted on and wouldve made a trementrology
Keating (New Zealand) urges the importance of sharing the information with non permanent members.

11. April 20th :Unanimous agreement for Alternative #2. (Resolution 912)
“one of the most ignominious actions of the international community in general and security council in particular”
-Adelman
April 28th, 29th: Abundant media coverage pressures the reconsideration of the UNAMIR mandate and the UN’s responsibility.
April 30th: Reconsideration of Resolution 912 because it does not give UNAMIR the mandate to protect civilians.
Canadian military advisor speaks to non-permanent members during intermission
(5,500 troops with a mandate to provide humanitarian assistance. The USA creates “protective zones” on the boarders of Zaire.)

12. June 8th: Resolution 925 extends the mandate of UNAMIR.
May 17th: Security Council announces “acts of genocide may have been committed.” (5,500 troops are authorized under Resolution 918)
May 25th: USA states they have no vital interests in Rwanda (also: PDD25)
May 31st: UNAMIR 2 will deploy with or without a ceasefire because it is officially a genocide.
June 8th: Resolution 925 extends the mandate of UNAMIR.
May take up to another 3 months to fulfill its mandate
May 17th the UN was still pushing the Arusha accords

13. Operation Turquoise
Given the situation of UNAMIR, France offers a multinational rescue mission until UNAMIR 2 fully deploys.
June 22nd : Resolution 929 allows France to set up humanitarian mission to protect Tutsis.
Questionable motives for the operation.
Mid-July, before OT is replaced by UNAMIR II, RPF ends the killings and has control over most of the country.
France was the original trainers for the Habyarimana government

14. June 22nd: Resolution 929 „Operation Turquoise“
April 12th: Belgian Withdrawal
October 5th: UNAMIR
May 17th: Resolution 918
1996, March: UNAMIR leaves Rwanda, having failed its priority mission
1993, August: Arusha Accords
April 20th: Resolution 912
June 8th: Resolution 925
1994, April 5th: Reso- lution 909
August: UNAMIR takes over from OT

15. Failures I ... where do we start.
Arusha Accords: unintended consequences to an act of preventive diplomacy
Flawed mandate of UNAMIR: no contribution by International Community to actually enforce the implementation of the Accords, resulting in failure
UNAMIR is in the country to keep peace, not make peace - what peace?
USA: refusal to classify the situation as a genocide, which would oblige them to intervene under the 1948 Genocide Convention
: extremists would have to be marginalized to even make an agreement with RPF possible, but other parties were practically too insignificant to even make an impact
UNAMIR is merely to observe and monitor, not to actively protect human rights or to ensure establishment of the Accords
Heavy reluctance of the Clinton government to get involved in another humanitarian intervention post-Somalia and potentially cross the Mogadishu-line ( - PDD25)

16. Failures II
France: the country that should and could have, at an early point, halted the violence, hesitates for far too long and initially only “intervenes“ to evacuate expatriates and allies
Security Council: lack of circulation of information / communication within SC, no specific interest held by neither power to get involved in the cause
Even after Resolution was 925 is passed and troops are authorized to be sent to Rwanda, bureaucracy and delay in response caused them to arrive only months after the mass killings have ceased - slow process
France‘s reluctance to recognize their former ally, the Hutu government which they trained and supplied with arms, as perpetrator of a genocide
Valuable information is withheld from the non-permanent Security Council members, as the permanent ones, especially the USA, Great Britain and China, are clearly against any kind of humanitarian intervention

18. Great Lakes Refugee Crisis
The genocide ends when RPF defeated the national army and established a government of national unity.
2 million Hutu refugees flee into surrounding countries for fear of persecution (mainly Zaire, Burundi, Tanzania)
UN sets up refugee camps; initially: great international support
Extremist militarization takes place in camps, used as a base for attacks and invasions by extremist Hutus into Rwanda

19. Great Lakes Refugee Crisis
RPF criticizes UN for indirectly making such a development and new mobilization possible
Many relief agencies abandon aid efforts as they feel their efforts are being exploited
Conflict expands into Zaire, triggering the First Congo War (1996) and the Second Congo War (1998), that Rwanda is heavily involved in
Refugee camps, for example in Tanzania, dissolved
Bizimungu becomes the president of the government.

20. Evaluation - UNAMIR (II)
Just cause - O
Use of force as last resort - O
Proportionality - X
High probability of positive outcome – O
Humanitarian intention - O
Humanitarian justification - O
Legality - O
Selectivity - O
Use of force was last resort triangle because at that point there was not much killings conducted,
Proportionality – 270 was not enough and by the time 5500 troops were deployed as requested, it was too late, making it irrelevant,
Great lakes Refugee crisis (Hutus) – find a stable government, create a stable environment,
300,000 displaced July 1994
The UN supported the HUTUs coming back created more tension within the country

21. Evaluation - Operation Turquoise
Humanitarian motivation - X
Humanitarian justification -O
Legality - O
Selectivity - X
Just cause – △
Use of force as last resort - △
Proportionality – X/△
High probability of positive outcome - △

22. • November 1994 : The ICTR, an international court to judge people responsible for the Genocide is established.
•the tribunal has finished 50 trials •convicted 29 accused persons •another 11 trials are in progress •14 individuals are awaiting trial in detention
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is an international court established in November 1994 by the United Nations Security Council in Resolution 955 in order to judge people responsible for the Rwandan Genocide and other serious violations of international law in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.
Establishment of Gacaca courts. -this is a village court system based on Rwandan traditions.

23. (Japan: 2.21 deaths/1,000 live births)
Rwanda Now
2003, August : Kagame is elected President in the nation’s first popular vote.
2009 :Rwanda and DRC (former Zaire) stage a joint military operation to rout out the Hutu extremist insurgency, restoring diplomatic relations between and Kigali and Kinshasa.
Infant mortality rates : deaths/1,000 live births
(Japan: 2.21 deaths/1,000 live births)
-Kagame is the RPF leader for the genocide and has been head of state from 2000.
The last election in Rwanda involved two party chiefs being accused of charges of inciting ethnic hatred and genocide ideology. Three parties were not permitted to field candidates due to registration related problems. A journalist critical of the government was shot in the head and senior member of the Democratic Green Party was beheaded.
-Rwanda is rated “Not Free” by the Freedom House Watch
-The opposition party leader was accused with crimes related to terrorism and denying genocide
Rwandan prosecution accused her of “Forming an armed group with the aim of destabilising the country, complicity to acts of terrorism, conspiracy against the government by use of war and terrorism, inciting the masses to revolt against the government, genocide ideology and provoking divisionism”. She denies all the charges which she claims are politically motivated
The truth remains unclear.
-While I have yet to meet anyone who fears another genocide in Rwanda, there are many who wonder whether Rwanda will continue to develop in stability or meet some sort of chaos

24. Improving economy: poverty rate reduced from 57 to 45% Low corruption.
“Singapore of Africa” –The Economist
Questionable democracy (93% of votes for Kagame in the presidential election)
“Not Free” –Freedom House Watch Opposition leader sentenced to prison for 8 years.(2012)
National institute of statistics of rwanda. (the poverty rate)
Gacaca court
-Questionable democracy – election results
-Kagame is the RPF leader for the genocide and has been head of state from 2000.
The last election in Rwanda involved two party chiefs being accused of charges of inciting ethnic hatred and genocide ideology. Three parties were not permitted to field candidates due to registration related problems. A journalist critical of the government was shot in the head and senior member of the Democratic Green Party was beheaded.
-Rwanda is rated “Not Free” by the Freedom House Watch
-The opposition party leader was accused with crimes related to terrorism and denying genocide
Rwandan prosecution accused her of “Forming an armed group with the aim of destabilising the country, complicity to acts of terrorism, conspiracy against the government by use of war and terrorism, inciting the masses to revolt against the government, genocide ideology and provoking divisionism”. She denies all the charges which she claims are politically motivated
The truth remains unclear.
-While I have yet to meet anyone who fears another genocide in Rwanda, there are many who wonder whether Rwanda will continue to develop in stability or meet some sort of chaos