1. The Relative Significance of Gender in Comparison to a Range of Personality Dimensions for Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity 10 Correlational Studies Hans Gerhard Klinzing Désirée Dede Bernadette Gerada Aloisio ATEE Budapest August 2010

2. - Stereotypes - Myth - Differences hypothesis - Similarities hypothesis Nonverbal competencies may reflect possible gender differences more clearly due to the fact that they are more difficult to control and therefore more evident than verbal ones

3. Purpose of Studies To assess Gender differences and similarities in Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity To assess Gender differences and similarities in Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity To assess Gender differences in other psycho- social domains in order to compare them to the above To assess Gender differences in other psycho- social domains in order to compare them to the above To compare the strength of relationships between Gender and Nonverbal competencies to that between Personality dimensions and NV competencies To compare the strength of relationships between Gender and Nonverbal competencies to that between Personality dimensions and NV competencies

4. What has been done so far Decoding ability – 193 studies Decoding ability – 193 studies 3 meta-analyses with consistent results favouring women: r pb =0.20; 0.21; 0.25 3 meta-analyses with consistent results favouring women: r pb =0.20; 0.21; 0.25 Encoding ability – 43 studies Encoding ability – 43 studies 35 US studies on single channels Mr pb =0.25; 35 US studies on single channels Mr pb =0.25; 2 US studies on global measures r pb =0.12; 0.09 2 US studies on global measures r pb =0.12; 0.09 5 German studies r pb =0.10; 0.14; no ES for other 3 5 German studies r pb =0.10; 0.14; no ES for other 3 1 Maltese study r pb =0.07 1 Maltese study r pb =0.07

5. Studies on Nonverbal Encoding Abilities, Hall (1984) r pb Facial expressiveness 0.45 (5 studies) Social smiling: 0.30 (15 studies) Gaze 0.32 (30 studies) Receipt of gaze 0.31 (6 studies) Proxemics Distance of approach to others -Naturalistic situations -0.27 (17 studies) -Staged -0.06 (8 studies) -Projective -0.07 (11 studies) Distance approached by others -Naturalistic -0.43 (9 studies) -Staged -0.30 (5 studies) -Projective -0.39 (7 studies)

6. Body movement and position -Restlessness -0.34 (6 studies) -Expansiveness -0.46 (6 studies) -Involvement 0.16(7 studies) -Expressiveness 0.28 (7 studies) -Self-consciousness 0.22 (5 studies) Vocal behaviour -Amount of speech errors -0.33 (6 studies) Amount of filled pauses -0.51 (6 studies) Total Expression skill 0.25 (35 studies)

7. Women are slightly more accurate in encoding facial expressions slightly more accurate in encoding facial expressions gaze more and receive more gaze gaze more and receive more gaze approach others more and are approached more closer than men. approach others more and are approached more closer than men. Hall found more similarities than differences for touching behaviours

8. Hall (1984; 1998), similar to Rosenthal et al. (1979) judged the tendency for women to be more effective than men in nonverbal decoding as one of the most consistent in the field. According to these authors such gender relationships represent a highly stable phenomenon across ages, decades, and numerous cultures. Findings in Germany: low, not statistically significant differences one study – higher nonverbal sensitivity for men one study – higher nonverbal sensitivity for men

9. Research Questions 1. Are there significant gender differences among students of education/student teachers for Nonverbal Expressiveness? Nonverbal Expressiveness? Tested Nonverbal Sensitivity? Tested Nonverbal Sensitivity? Self-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity? Self-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity? Relationship between Tested and Self-Rated Nonverbal Sensitivity? Relationship between Tested and Self-Rated Nonverbal Sensitivity? Relationship between Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity? Relationship between Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity? Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Age? Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Age? Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Semester Completed? Relationship between Nonverbal Competencies and Semester Completed?

10. 2. How big are gender differences in nonverbal competencies relative to gender differences in other psychological domains? 3. How do relationships of Nonverbal Expressiveness and of Nonverbal Sensitivity to personality dimensions compare with relationships of gender to the same nonverbal competencies? PARTICIPANTS PARTICIPANTS 675 undergraduate students studying education (m: 192; f: 483) in two large German Universities signed up to participate in the studies (age: M= 23.84 years). 675 undergraduate students studying education (m: 192; f: 483) in two large German Universities signed up to participate in the studies (age: M= 23.84 years).

11. Data Collection the Affective Communication Test (ACT, a 13 item, nine-point scale paper-and-pencil self-report developed by Friedman et al., 1980). the Affective Communication Test (ACT, a 13 item, nine-point scale paper-and-pencil self-report developed by Friedman et al., 1980). the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS-test, a 45-minute black and white film and sound track with 220 two- second auditory and/or visual segments developed by Rosenthal et al., 1979). the Profile of Nonverbal Sensitivity (PONS-test, a 45-minute black and white film and sound track with 220 two- second auditory and/or visual segments developed by Rosenthal et al., 1979). Self-rating test of Nonverbal Sensitivity (a six- item test developed by Rosenthal et al., 1979). Self-rating test of Nonverbal Sensitivity (a six- item test developed by Rosenthal et al., 1979). Freiburger Persoenlichkeits Inventar (FPI - Freiburger Personality Inventory, 114 items divided in nine factor- analytic scales with 3 more scales developed on an item-analytic basis developed by Fahrenberg, Selg, & Hampel 1978). Freiburger Persoenlichkeits Inventar (FPI - Freiburger Personality Inventory, 114 items divided in nine factor- analytic scales with 3 more scales developed on an item-analytic basis developed by Fahrenberg, Selg, & Hampel 1978).

12. Results Nonverbal Expressiveness Nonverbal Expressiveness significant pooled differences between males and females favouring women (r pb =0.21, p<0.01) significant pooled differences between males and females favouring women (r pb =0.21, p<0.01) Nonverbal Sensitivity Nonverbal Sensitivity pooled r pb of 0.05 (n.s.) pooled r pb of 0.05 (n.s.) Self-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity Self-rated Nonverbal Sensitivity very weak results for self-ratings of general and specific nonverbal sensitivity except for one item (warmth) very weak results for self-ratings of general and specific nonverbal sensitivity except for one item (warmth)

13. Relationships between Tested and Self- Rated Nonverbal Sensitivity Relationships between Tested and Self- Rated Nonverbal Sensitivity near zero correlations between self-reports of general and channel-specific sensitivity and tested receiving accuracy for the total group and the group without test-repeaters near zero correlations between self-reports of general and channel-specific sensitivity and tested receiving accuracy for the total group and the group without test-repeaters Relationships between Decoding (PONS) and Encoding Ability (ACT) Relationships between Decoding (PONS) and Encoding Ability (ACT) weak relationship with no differences between males and females weak relationship with no differences between males and females

14. Relationship between Age and Nonverbal Competencies Relationship between Age and Nonverbal Competencies - weak but positive for encoding ability with a nearly significant difference favouring men - weak but positive for encoding ability with a nearly significant difference favouring men - significantly negative but small (r=-0.13) for decoding ability, with no significant differences between males and females - significantly negative but small (r=-0.13) for decoding ability, with no significant differences between males and females Relationship between Semester Completed and Nonverbal Competencies Relationship between Semester Completed and Nonverbal Competencies near zero without significant differences between males and females near zero without significant differences between males and females

15. Other Psychological Domains: Personality Dimensions Other Psychological Domains: Personality Dimensions weak median r pb of 0.11 (M=0.13) for gender differences in personality dimensions (assessed with the FPI) weak median r pb of 0.11 (M=0.13) for gender differences in personality dimensions (assessed with the FPI) Gender differences in Nonverbal Expressiveness (r pb =0.21) exceeded slightly those in Personality dimensions Gender differences in Nonverbal Sensitivity (r pb =0.04/0.05), however, were slightly exceeded by those in Personality dimensions (Mdn.r pb =0.11)

16. Relationships between Gender and Nonverbal Competencies Compared to Relationships between Personality Dimensions and Nonverbal Competencies Relationships between Gender and Nonverbal Competencies Compared to Relationships between Personality Dimensions and Nonverbal Competencies Nonverbal Expressiveness Gender was stronger than Personality Dimensions in Nervousness (p=0.08), Aggression (p=0.003), Excitability (p=0.05), Dominance (p=0.003), Openness (p=0.007). Gender was stronger than Personality Dimensions in Nervousness (p=0.08), Aggression (p=0.003), Excitability (p=0.05), Dominance (p=0.003), Openness (p=0.007). Personality Dimensions exceeded Gender in Calmness (n.s.), Sociability (p<0.0001), Inhibition (p=0.06), Extraversion (p<0.0001), “Masculinity” (p=0.62). For Depression and Emotional Lability, the r’s were of about the same magnitude Personality Dimensions exceeded Gender in Calmness (n.s.), Sociability (p<0.0001), Inhibition (p=0.06), Extraversion (p<0.0001), “Masculinity” (p=0.62). For Depression and Emotional Lability, the r’s were of about the same magnitude

17. Nonverbal Sensitivity Gender and Personality Dimensions - very weak relations to Nonverbal Sensitivity (r’s from 0.0007 to 0.09) with no significant differences in all cases in all cases Gender weakly and nonsignificantly (p>0.05) exceeded Personality Dimensions in Depression, Sociability, Calmness, Dominance, Inhibition, Emotional Lability & Masculinity; was of about the same strength in Nervousness, Aggression & Excitability Personality Dimensions exceeded Gender in Openness and Extraversion

18. Summary/Conclusion Investigation of relationships in consistent samples between gender and nonverbal competencies directly compared to relationships between personality and the same nonverbal competencies so far not undertaken. Investigation of relationships in consistent samples between gender and nonverbal competencies directly compared to relationships between personality and the same nonverbal competencies so far not undertaken. Findings contribute to understanding the relative importance of gender for Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity, in comparison to a range of personality and psycho-social dimensions. Findings contribute to understanding the relative importance of gender for Nonverbal Expressiveness and Nonverbal Sensitivity, in comparison to a range of personality and psycho-social dimensions.

19. Findings question gender differences to be key in communication (in contrast to e.g., Anderson, 1998; Hall, 1978). Findings question gender differences to be key in communication (in contrast to e.g., Anderson, 1998; Hall, 1978). Personality dimensions and nonverbal skill can be improved (Klinzing, 2002; 2007; Klinzing & Gerada Aloisio, 2009a). Personality dimensions and nonverbal skill can be improved (Klinzing, 2002; 2007; Klinzing & Gerada Aloisio, 2009a). Eventual deficits that create individual, rather than gender, differences can be overcome with training. Eventual deficits that create individual, rather than gender, differences can be overcome with training.

20. Hans Gerhard Klinzing hgklinzing@gmx.net Bernadette Gerada Aloisio bernadette.gerada@gov.mt Thank you