1. Chapter 10
Sex and Gender

2. Chapter Outline Sex: The Biological Dimension
Gender: The Cultural Dimension
Gender Stratification in Historical and Contemporary Perspective
Gender and Socialization
Contemporary Gender Inequality
Perspectives on Gender Stratification
Gender Issues in the Future

3.  Sex and Gender
Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males.
Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males.

4. Sex: The Biological Dimension
At birth, males and females are distinguished by primary sex characteristics.
Occasionally, a hormone imbalance produces a hermaphrodite - a person with a combination of male and female genitalia.
Western societies acknowledge two sexes; other societies recognize three - men, women, and berdaches, males who behave, dress, work,and are treated as women.

5. Gender: The Cultural Dimension
Most “sex differences” are socially constructed “gender differences”.
Gender is embedded in the images, ideas, and language of a society.
Gender is used as a means to divide up work, allocate resources, and distribute power.

6. Sexism
Subordination of one sex based on the assumed superiority of the other sex.
Sexism directed at women has three components:
Negative attitudes toward women.
Stereotypical beliefs that reinforce, complement, or justify the prejudice.
Discrimination - acts that exclude, distance, or keep women separate.

7. Gender Stereotypes
Hold that men and women are different in attributes, behavior and aspirations.
Men: strong, rational, dominant, independent, less concerned with appearance.
Women: weak, emotional, nurturing, dependent, anxious about appearance.

8. Technoeconomic Bases of Society
Hunting and Gathering
Horticultural and Pastoral
Agrarian
Change from Prior Society —
Use of hand tools.
Use of animal-drawn plows and equipment
Economics
Hunting game, gathering roots and berries.
Planting crops, domestication of animals.
Labor-intensive farming
Control of Surplus
None
Men who begin to control societies
Men who own land or herds

9. Technoeconomic Bases of Society
Hunting and Gathering
Horticultural and Pastoral
Agrarian
Inheritance
None
Shared—patrilineal and matrilineal
Patrilineal
Control Over Procreation
Increasingly by men
Men -to ensure
Legitimacy.
Women’s Status
Relative equality
Decreasing in move to pastoralism
Low

10. Technoeconomic Bases of Society
Industrial
Postindustrial
Change from Prior Society
Invention of steam engine
Invention of computer and development of“high-tech” society.
Economics
Mechanized production of goods
Information and service economy
Control of Surplus
Men who own means of production
Corporate shareholders and high-tech entrepreneurs.

11. Technoeconomic Bases of Society
Industrial
Postindustrial
Inheritance
Bilateral
Control Over Procreation
Men—but less so in later stages
Mixed
Women’s Status
Low
Low Varies by class, race, and age.

12. Gendered Division of Labor
Three factors:
Type of subsistence base.
Supply of and demand for labor.
The extent to which women's child-rearing activities are compatible with certain types of work.

13. Increase in Single Mothers
Between 1990 and 2000, the number of U.S. families headed by single mothers increased by 25%.
A single mother is defined as a widowed, divorced, separated, or never married woman who has children under 18 living at home.
This increase may indicate that “traditional” households are in decline.

14. Parents and Gender Socialization
Children's clothing and toys reflect their parents' gender expectations.
Children are often assigned household tasks according to gender.

15. Peers and Gender Socialization
Peers help children learn gender‑appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
During adolescence, peers often are more effective at gender socialization than adults.
College student peers play an important role in career choices and the establishment of long term, intimate relationships.

16. Schools and Gender Socialization
Teachers provide messages about gender through classroom assignments and informal interactions with students.
Teachers may unintentionally show favoritism toward one gender over the other.

17. Sports and Gender Socialization
From elementary school through high school:
Boys play football.
Girls are cheerleaders, members of the drill team, and homecoming queens.
For many males, sports is a training ground for masculinity.

18. Mass Media and Gender Socialization
On television:
Male characters typically are more aggressive, constructive, and direct.
Females are deferential toward others or use manipulation to get their way.

19. Percent of Women, African Americans, and Hispanics in Selected Occupations
All occupations
46.2
11.1
10.1
Managerial, professional specialty (all)
49.0
7.6
5.0
Technical, sales, and administrative support (all)
64.2
8.3
Service occupations (all)
59.5
17.6
15.0
Operators, fabricators, and laborers
24.6
15.7
16.0

20. The Wage Gap
Women’s wages are always lower than those of men in the same age group.
The older women get, the greater the gap.
Women ages 15–24 earn 80 cents for every dollar earned by men the same age.
Women ages 55–64 earn only 45 cents for every dollar earned by men ages 55–64.

21. The Wage Gap
White men earn more than African American and Hispanic men.
Across racial–ethnic groupings, men’s earnings remain higher than the earnings of women in the ethnic grouping.
Regardless of occupation, women on average receive lower wages.