1. Lecture 2 Phonology Sounds: Basic Principles

2. Definition Phonology is the component of linguistic knowledge concerned with rules, representations, and principles that govern the pattering of sounds. It is the grammar of sound.

3. The Phoneme Phonological form is intrinsically meaningless. Phonological form is intrinsically meaningless. Sounds like /  / or /  / have no linguistic interpretation; they are only building blocks. Sounds like /  / or /  / have no linguistic interpretation; they are only building blocks. But, they are distinctive building blocks: / k  t / cat vs. / m  t / mat. But, they are distinctive building blocks: / k  t / cat vs. / m  t / mat. They are phonemes. They are phonemes. A phoneme, an abstract segment, is the smallest unit which can make difference in meaning. A phoneme, an abstract segment, is the smallest unit which can make difference in meaning. A phoneme inventory only contains members that are capable of distinguishing words. A phoneme inventory only contains members that are capable of distinguishing words.

4. Phonemes in a Language BilabialLabio-DentalAlveolarPalato-PalatalVelarGlottal dentalalveolar Stops pttSk bddZg Fricatives fTsShfTsShvDzZvDzZfTsShfTsShvDzZvDzZ Nasals mnNmnNmnNmnN Approximantsl llwrjwrjllwrjwrj

5. Phonemic Variation /  /fan/ f  t /fat / p  n /pan/ p  l /pal / min /mean/ mir / mere [  ][ f  t ] [pn][pl][pn][pl][pn][pl][pn][pl] [ mi  n ][ mir ]

6. Predictable Variation A vowel is nasalized when it is immediately followed by a nasal consonant. v  v  /_____[+nasal]

7. Allophones A phonetic variant of a phoneme is an allophone of that phoneme. For example, the English phoneme / t / may be realized phonetically as: aspirated[  ]tin dental[  ]eighth nasally released [  n ] cotton …

8. Distinctive & Non-distinctive Variation In any language, the number of sounds is very large. In any language, the number of sounds is very large. Yet, they are organized by the phonological system: Yet, they are organized by the phonological system: a. limited inventory of distinctive sounds b. rule-governed variation

9. Phonemic Analysis A phonemic analysis of a language involves: A set of phonemes – the inventory of basic, distinctive sounds in the language; A set of phonemes – the inventory of basic, distinctive sounds in the language; A set of phonological rules, which specify the arrangement of the non- distinctive differences in the language, by specifying where all the allophones occur. A set of phonological rules, which specify the arrangement of the non- distinctive differences in the language, by specifying where all the allophones occur.

10. Phoneme or Allophone Two sounds are distinct (are in contrast) when: There is, at least, one environment where the difference between them is the only distinction between two utterances differing in meaning. There is, at least, one environment where the difference between them is the only distinction between two utterances differing in meaning. Their distribution is not predictable by any general rule. Their distribution is not predictable by any general rule. Native speakers are sensitive to the difference between them. Native speakers are sensitive to the difference between them.

11. Phoneme or Allophone Two sounds are non-distinct (phonetic variants) when: They exhibit phonetic similarity. They exhibit phonetic similarity. (They share more phonetic features with each other than either does with any other sound.) They are not in contrastive distribution. They are not in contrastive distribution. (Neither can occur in the same position to produce different meanings.)

12. Phoneme or Allophone [  ][  ] [  ] [  ][  ] [  ] fileallfeel [  ][  ] [  ] [  ][  ] [  ] plasticclassdiscipline [  ][  ] [  ] [  ][  ] [  ] wealthhealthstealth [ ][  ] [  ] [ ][  ] [  ] listenblendallow

13. Phoneme or Allophone [  ] occurs at the end of words; [  ] occurs at the end of words; / /  [  ] /____] word [  ] occurs after a voiceless consonant; [  ] occurs after a voiceless consonant; / /  [  ] /voiceless stop____ [  ] occurs before the sound [  ]; [  ] occurs before the sound [  ]; / /  [  ] /____[  ] [ ] occurs elsewhere. [ ] occurs elsewhere.

14. Phoneme or Allophone Cross-linguistically An allophone in one language can be a phoneme in another. An allophone in one language can be a phoneme in another. [  ] is an allophone of the phoneme / k / in some dialects of Arabic, but it is a separate phoneme in other languages like English. A phoneme in one language can be an allophone in another. A phoneme in one language can be an allophone in another. [  ] is phoneme in Spanish, but it is an allophone of the phoneme / t / in North American English.

15. Phonemes minimal pairs A basic test for a sound’s distinctiveness is the minimal pair test. A basic test for a sound’s distinctiveness is the minimal pair test. A minimal pair consists of two forms with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment (sound) found in the same position in each form. A minimal pair consists of two forms with distinct meanings that differ by only one segment (sound) found in the same position in each form.

16. Phonemes near-minimal pairs Sometimes it is not easy (or impossible) to find a minimal pair. Sometimes it is not easy (or impossible) to find a minimal pair. Consider the phonemes / Z / and /  / in English. Are the two sounds allophones in English? Are the two sounds allophones in English? To agree with this, we MUST locate the RULES the govern their distribution. To agree with this, we MUST locate the RULES the govern their distribution. Near-minimal pairs will show the arbitrariness of the distribution. Near-minimal pairs will show the arbitrariness of the distribution. A near-minimal pair falls short of being minimal by virtue of an additional irrelevant difference. A near-minimal pair falls short of being minimal by virtue of an additional irrelevant difference.

17. Phonemes near-minimal pairs tethervs.pleasure neithervs.seizure lathervs.azure smoothenvs.illusion There isn’t any consistent factor to determine the distribution of / Z / and /  / in English There isn’t any consistent factor to determine the distribution of / Z / and /  / in English If the rules cannot be found, then an analysis that claims allophonic status of / Z / and /  / in English is rendered unjustifiable. If the rules cannot be found, then an analysis that claims allophonic status of / Z / and /  / in English is rendered unjustifiable.

18. Allophones complementary distribution If the distribution of two sounds does not overlap, then it will be impossible for any difference between them ever to be contrastive (i.e. the sole element distinguishing words form each other). If the distribution of two sounds does not overlap, then it will be impossible for any difference between them ever to be contrastive (i.e. the sole element distinguishing words form each other). Two sounds are said to be in complementary distribution if they never occur in indistinguishable phonetic environments. Two sounds are said to be in complementary distribution if they never occur in indistinguishable phonetic environments. Therefore, two sounds that are in complementary distribution are likely to be allophones of the same phoneme. Therefore, two sounds that are in complementary distribution are likely to be allophones of the same phoneme.

19. Natural Classes Generalization Variation is widespread within languages. Variation is widespread within languages. However, phonological analysis provides a systematic account for this great amount of variation. However, phonological analysis provides a systematic account for this great amount of variation. Recognizing natural classes facilitates that. Recognizing natural classes facilitates that. A natural class is any complete set of sounds in a given language that share the same value for a feature or set of features. A natural class is any complete set of sounds in a given language that share the same value for a feature or set of features. They are useful tools to help avoid listing and ultimately achieve generalizations. They are useful tools to help avoid listing and ultimately achieve generalizations.

20. Natural Classes Generalization Voiceless allophones of English / r /: Voiceless allophones of English / r /: [  ] pray [  ] trip [  ] creep The data show that the allophones of English /  / pattern like those of English / /. The data show that the allophones of English /  / pattern like those of English / /. Listing: Listing: 1. In English, the phoneme / / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere. 2. In English, the phoneme /  / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere. Generalization: Generalization: In English, liquids have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere. In English, liquids have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.

21. Natural Classes Generalization Voiceless allophones of English glides: Voiceless allophones of English glides: [  ] putrid[  ] cute [  ] twin[  ] quick Listing: Listing: 3. In English, the phoneme /  / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere. 4. In English, the phoneme /  / has a voiceless allophone after voiceless stops and a voiced allophone elsewhere. 5. In English, liquids and glides have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere Generalization: Generalization: In English, approximants have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere. In English, approximants have voiceless allophones after voiceless stops and voiced allophones elsewhere.

22. Rules and Phonemic Distribution Are rules limited to manipulating non- distinctive information? Are rules limited to manipulating non- distinctive information? Can they manipulate distinctive material? Can they manipulate distinctive material? If that is true, why does a phonological system need them? If that is true, why does a phonological system need them?

23. Rules and Phonemic Distribution Phonotactic Constraints: Phonotactic Constraints: /  / is not allowed initially. /  / is not allowed finally. … Contextually-Limited Contrasts Contextually-Limited Contrasts sequences of two stops: [-pt], [-kt], [-bd], [-gd]allowed [-tk], [-kp], [-dg], [-db]banned

24. Reality of Phonemes Speakers of a language where two phonetically similar sounds do not contrast find it very difficult to distinguish them in other languages where they contrast. Speakers of a language where two phonetically similar sounds do not contrast find it very difficult to distinguish them in other languages where they contrast. Speakers of a language where two phonetically similar sounds do not contrast tend to consider them as the same sound. Speakers of a language where two phonetically similar sounds do not contrast tend to consider them as the same sound.

25. Summing up Phonology is a set of Phonemes and a number of Rules governing their pattering. Phonology is a set of Phonemes and a number of Rules governing their pattering. If the rules regulate non-contrastive properties, the result is allophonic variation. If the rules regulate non-contrastive properties, the result is allophonic variation. Yet, regulating contrastive properties creates phonological contrasts, with limited distribution. Yet, regulating contrastive properties creates phonological contrasts, with limited distribution.

26. Phonology above the Segment Suprasegmental Domains