The Age of Enlightenment

The Age of Enlightenment
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Age of Enlightenment Western Heritage Chapter 17 Describe the philosophy of the Enlightenment thinkers and their fundamental principles. Confidence in the human mind and human enterprise based on the assumption that science and reason can explain all things. Faith in the power of rational criticism to challenge the intellectual authority of tradition and the Christian past. Convinced that human beings could comprehend the operation of physical nature and mold it towards moral improvement, economic growth, and political reform. Rationality of the physical universe became a standard against which the customs and traditions of society could be measured and criticized.

Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment
AP European History The Enlightenment **The philosophes disagreed on many issues but shared the fundamental principle of reforming society for the sake of human liberty.** Key Feature: emphasis on concrete experience Impact of the Enlightenment: spirit of innovation and improvement came to characterize modern Europe and western society **The philosophes disagreed on many issues but shared the fundamental principle of reforming society for the sake of human liberty.** What impact did the Enlightenment have on Europe and the Western world? Impact of the Enlightenment: The spirit of innovation and improvement came to characterize modern Europe and western society. What was the name of the writers and critics from the Enlightenment movement? Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, D’Alembert, Rousseau, Hume, Gibbon, Smith, Lessing, Kanta few were professors, most were middle class professionals.

AP European History Alexander Pope “Nature and Nature’s Laws lay hid in night God said, ‘Let Newton be!’ and all was light.” —Alexander Pope, Epitaphs To many, Newton’s work seemed to link physics and astronomy, to bind the new science as gravity itself held the universe together. An English poet caught the spirit of what would later be called the Newtonian revolution.

Forerunner of the Enlightenment Isaac Newton
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Forerunner of the Enlightenment Isaac Newton Law of universal gravitation exemplified power of human mind Distinctly Christian  urged Europeans to study nature directly Insisted upon empirical support for his general laws If nature is rational, society should also be organized rationally. What two individuals are credited with being the forerunners to the Enlightenment? Isaac Newton, whose law of gravitation exemplified the power of the human mind. What did Newton encourage and illustrate in his writings to Europeans? Newton (like his friend Locke was distinctly Christian) encouraged Europeans to approach the study of nature directly and to avoid metaphysics and supernaturalism. He insisted on empirical support for his general laws. **This emphasis on concrete experience became a key feature of Enlightenment thought.** Describe Newton’s view of nature and society. Newton seems to have revealed a pattern of rationality in the natural world. This was later applied to society. If nature was rational, they reasoned, society, too should be organized rationally. Newton wrote more books on theology than on science, especially in later life.

Example of British Toleration and Political Stability
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Example of British Toleration and Political Stability Religious toleration Freedom of speech and press Limited monarchy—Parliament sovereign Courts protected citizens rights Domestic stability Small standing army Less regulated economic life **All of the above produced prosperity, stability and a loyal citizenry, not disorder and instability as Hobbes feared.** What was it about Great Britain that the philosophes found so appealing? Great Britain had: Liberal government Religious toleration (for all except Unitarians and Roman Catholicseven they were not persecuted) Domestic stability Relative freedom of the press and free speech Limited monarchy (sovereignty resided in Parliament) Courts protected citizens Small standing army Less regulated economic life Implications: All of the above produced not disorder and instability (as feared by Hobbes), but prosperity, stability and a loyal citizenry.

AP European History Print Culture Enlightenment  first major intellectual movement to flourish in the print culture Books, journals, magazines, newspapers increased Increasingly literate public created new social force  public opinion Increased number of secular books People of Print Joseph Addison and Richard Steele - published books on politeness and the value of books Alexander Pope and Voltaire – become wealthy and famous from their writings Emergence of a Print Culture Enlightenmentfirst major intellectual movement in Europe to flourish in a print culture. The volume of printed material increased sharply especially in Britain. Prose became as valued as poetry. **Late 1600s, half of the books published in Paris were religious. By late 1700s, only 10% of the books published were religious.** Public and private libraries grew in number, so 1 copy could reach many readers. Writers were now able to earn a living from their work. Some, i.e. Voltaire and Alexander Pope grew wealthy. Many lesser writers, however, grew resentful. They often espoused radical ideas or transmitted the English ideas in an embittered form to their, often lower class, audiences. An expanding literate public and growing influence of secular printed materials created a new and increasingly influential social force called public opinion. Public opinion – the collective effect on political and social life of views discussed in the home, workplace and places of leisure Government had to answer to the people Central European governments in fear censored books, confiscated offending titles and imprisoned authors

Implications of the Emergence of the Print Culture
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Implications of the Emergence of the Print Culture Governments could no longer operate in secret or disregard public opinion Had to explain and discuss policies openly Governments sensed political power of the new print culture. Governments regulated the book trade, censored books & newspapers, sometimes imprisoned authors. Governments could no longer operate wholly in secret or with disregard to the larger public sphere. They and their critics had to explain and discuss their views and policies openly. Continental European governments sensed the political power of the new print culture. Governments regulated the book trade, censored books & newspapers, sometimes imprisoned authors

AP European History The Philosophers Reformers rather than revolutionaries Advocated toleration Favored expansion of trade improvement of agriculture & transportation new industries The philosophers of the Age of Reason strongly opposed religious intolerance and what they viewed as irrational superstition of religious beliefs They disagreed on many issues but shared the fundamental principle of reforming society for the sake of human liberty. They were reformers and did not advocate revolution. Concerning economics, what were the views of the philosophes? Generally supported: expansion of trade improvement of agriculture and transportation invention of new manufacturing machinery **All of which would enlarge the business and commercial classes.**

The Enlightenment and Religion
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Enlightenment and Religion Challenged church’s concept of “original sin” Challenged church practices paying no taxes Rulers also being religious leaders Literary censorship How did the philosophes view Christianity? What was their view of religion overall? Read p. 597 left column Many philosophes felt that… Ecclesiastical institutions were the chief impediment to human improvement and happiness. All varieties of the church were this way, most especially the Roman Catholic Church. Judaism and Islam had the same faults. Churches hindered the pursuit of a rational life because they taught man was basically depraved and became worthy only by God’s grace. Therefore, meaningful improvement in human nature on earth was impossible. Religion turned attention away from this world to the world to come. Clergy frequently provided intellectual justification for the social and political status quo. The clergy often were active agents of religious and literary censorship. ** Most of the philosophes sought not the abolition of religion but its transformation into a humane force that would encourage virtuous living. As expressed by the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, they sought to pursue religion within the limits of reason alone.** **Their attacks on Christianity also undermined the authority of Hebrew scripture. Some saw Judaism as a more primitive faith than Christianity. This further stigmatized Jews in the eyes of non-Jewish Europeans.**

AP European History Joseph Addison “The spacious firmament on high, With all the blue ethereal sky, And spangled heav’n, a shining frame, Their great Original proclaim: Th’ unwearied Sun, from day to day, Does his Creator’s power display, And publishes to every land The work of an Almighty hand.” There were two major points in the deists’ creed. The first was a belief in the existence of God, which they thought could be empirically justified by the contemplation of nature. Addison’s poem on the spacious firmament (1712) illustrates this idea. Because nature provided evidence of a rational God, that deity must also favor rational morality. So the second point in the deists’ creed was a belief in life after death, when rewards and punishments would be meted out according to the virtue of the lives people led on this earth. The Deists, having reservations about the doctrines of established religions, did believe that there existed basic standards of what was right and wrong. Perceiving God as the prime creator and mover, they believed that having established the natural laws by which man should act, God did not intervene in his everyday life. Man, possessing reason, should learn to live in conformity with those natural laws. The individual possess the freedom and rational ability to determine what is good and evil and to choose between them.

Deism – religion and reason combined
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Deism – religion and reason combined John Toland - Christianity Not Mysterious (1696) – promoted religion as natural and rational, rather than supernatural and mystical Deism – tolerant, reasonable, capable of encouraging virtuous living DeismReligion combined with reason. Viewed God as a kind of divine watchmaker (he created it, set it in motion and then stepped away) God was remote and did not choose to interfere with the operation of his creation. Most were strongly anti-clerical Believed in the existence of a God which could be empirically justified by contemplating nature (read Joseph Addison’s poem p. 597, bottom right) Believed in life after death when rewards and punishments would be meted out according to the virtue of the lives people led on this earth Philosophes did not oppose all religion ScotlandWilliam Robertson, head of the Scottish Kirk, was an enlightened historian. Anglican clergy popularized Newton’s ideas. Philosophes sought religion without fanaticism and intolerance and with human reason substituted for church authority. If, as Newton had shown, nature was rational, then God, who had created it must also be rational.

AP European History The Ideas of John Locke Believed in man’s ability to rule himself and also improve the human condition Humans born a “blank page”—“tabula rasa” Experience and only experience shapes character In An Essay in Human Understanding, he rejected Christian notion that sin permanently flawed humans What two individuals are credited with being the forerunners to the Enlightenment? Newton and Locke (they were friends)—both considered themselves to be Christians John Locke, who had implicit faith in man’s ability to govern himself and believed in the possibility of improving the human condition. Describe tabula rasa completely. Tabula rasa: Locke’s belief that all humans enter the world as a “blank page” Personality is the portrait of external sensations Experience and only experience shapes character Implications: Human nature is changeable and can be molded by modifying the environment. This reformer’s psychology suggested the possibility of improving the human condition. What two disagreements did John Locke have with Christian doctrine? In “An Essay in Human Understanding”, in effect, Locke (saw himself as a Christian) 1) rejected the Christian doctrine that human beings are permanently flawed by sin. 2) believed that humans could take charge of their own destiny and did not need to wait for the grace of God.

Voltaire – the first philosopher
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Voltaire – the first philosopher Imprisoned at the Bastille for offending the French Went into exile in England “Crush the infamous thing.” (“Escraze l’infame.”) Not an atheist— considered himself a Deist ** Voltaire (Francois-Marie Arouet, ) first among the philosophes Offended the French authorities by certain of his writings Arrested and briefly imprisoned Later, he went to England. He liked its tolerant religious and intellectual climate. In 1733, he published Letters on the English, praising the English, in so doing he indirectly criticized French society. In 1738, Elements of the Philosophy of Newton was printed which popularized Newton's thoughts. Voltaire’s essays, histories, plays, stories, and letters made him the literary dictator of Europe. Most famous satireCandide (1759) attacks war, religious persecution, and what he considered unwarranted optimism about the human condition. Believed human society could and should be improved. Could be identified with the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes. Voltaire maintained that Enlightened Despotism would be the best form of government for France; this position concurs with the Hobbessian view that people need to be governed, not government by the people. Never certain that reforms achieved could be sustained. Pessimism was an undercurrent in most of the works of the period.

AP European History Voltaire Published works 1733 – Letters on the English – praised British freedoms—especially religion— criticized the French 1738 – Elements of the Philosophy of Newton – popularized Newton’s theories after his death 1759 – Candide – satire attacking war, religious persecution and unwarranted optimism about the human condition

Religious Toleration Literary Works
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Religious Toleration Literary Works John Locke – Letter Concerning Toleration (1689) – set forth toleration as prime requisite for virtuous life Voltaire – Treatise on Tolerance (1763) – wanted answers to why Roman Catholic Church executed Huguenot Jean Calas Gothold Lessing – Nathan the Wise (1779) – called for religious tolerance of all religions not just Christianity What did Voltaire mean by, “Crush the infamous thing.”? It summed up the attitude of many, but not all philosophes toward the church. How did the philosophes view Christianity? What was their view of religion overall? Read p. 597 left column Many philosophes felt that… Ecclesiastical institutions were the chief impediment to human improvement and happiness. All varieties of the church were this way, most especially the Roman Catholic Church. Judaism and Islam had the same faults. Churches hindered the pursuit of a rational life because they taught man was basically depraved and became worthy only by God’s grace. Therefore, meaningful improvement in human nature on earth was impossible. Religion turned attention away from this world to the world to come. Clergy frequently provided intellectual justification for the social and political status quo. The clergy often were active agents of religious and literary censorship. ** Most of the philosophes sought not the abolition of religion but its transformation into a humane force that would encourage virtuous living. As expressed by the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant, they sought to pursue religion within the limits of reason alone.** **Their attacks on Christianity also undermined the authority of Hebrew scripture. Some saw Judaism as a more primitive faith than Christianity. This further stigmatized Jews in the eyes of non-Jewish Europeans.**

Radical Enlightenment Texts
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Radical Enlightenment Texts David Hume – Inquiry Into Human Nature (1748) – no empirical evidence that miracles exist Voltaire – Philosophical Dictionary (1764) – using humor, pointed out inconsistencies in the Bible and the immoral acts of Biblical heroes Baron d’Holbach—embraced a position very near atheism and materialism—a distinct minority of Enlightenment thinkers. What was the appropriate social context for a virtuous life? According to the philosophes religious toleration was a primary social condition for the virtuous life. (The case of Jean CalasHuguenot ordered executed by the Roman Catholic authorities.Voltaire took the lead in championing this cause.) In Treatise on Tolerance, Voltaire said the case illustrated the fruits of religious fanaticism and the need for rational reform of the judicial processes. Some, including Voltaire, went beyond advocating toleration to attacking the churches and the clergy with vehemence. Gotthold Lessing wrote Nathan the Wise (based on Mendelsohn), a plea for religious toleration of all faiths. David Hume (he was an atheist)wrote Inquiry into Human Nature in which included a chapter entitled “Miracles”, which he viewed with scorn. Hume had a view similar to Diderot’s on Christianity. When he died, the Scottish Bible Society also bought his house and produced Bibles from there. Edward Gibbon, an English historian, wrote The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, in which he explained the rise of Christianity in terms of natural causes rather than the influence of miracles and piety. Baron d’Holbach embraced a position very near to atheism and materialism. This was a distinct minority, however. Early deist work John Toland wrote Christianity Not Mysterious

Radical Enlightenment Texts
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Radical Enlightenment Texts Edward Gibbon – Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (1776) – explains the rise of Christianity through natural causes Immanuel Kant – Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793) – religion as a humane force through which there can be virtuous living. “The first step in regard to the subjects of pure reason, and which marks the infancy of that faculty, is dogmatic. The second, which we have just mentioned, is sceptical, and it gives evidence that our judgement has been improved by experience. But a third step, such as can be taken only by fully matured judgment, based on assured principles of proved universality, is now necessary, namely to subject to examination, not the facts of reason, but reason itself, ... not the censorship but the criticism of reason, whereby not its present bounds but its determinate and necessary limits.” [Critique of Pure Reason]

The Enlightenment and Judaism
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Enlightenment and Judaism Jewish Thinkers Baruch Spinoza – Ethics – closely identified God with nature Forerunner of the Enlightenment Criticized as an atheist Excommunicated from synagogue for his beliefs Describe the teachings of Baruch Spinoza. Spinoza (picture p. 600) Dutch Jewish philosopheforerunner of the Enlightenment influenced by the new science of the 17th century Ethics-most famous workclosely identified God and naturecondemned by his contemporariescriticized as an atheist Both Jews and Christians believed that his near pantheistic view might mean humans might not be responsible for their actions and that there could be no personal, individual immortality of the human soul after death. He was excommunicated from his own synagogue.

The Enlightenment and Judaism
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Enlightenment and Judaism Moses Mendelsohn – “Jewish Socrates” Jerusalem (1783) – argued for religious toleration and religious distinction of Jewish communities The term “Jewish Socrates” applies to whom? Explain why? Moses Mendelsohn“Jewish Socrates” Advocated that Jews enter into modern European life Contrast to Spinozaargued for loyalty to Judaism, combined with Adherence to rational Enlightenment ideas. Most influential workJerusalem: or On Ecclesiastical Power and Judaism(1783)argued for both advancing extensive religious toleration and for maintaining the distinction of Jewish communities and their traditional religious practices. Believed Jews should enjoy the same civil rights as other subjects. Did not believe that Jewish communities should have the right to excommunicate their members.

Islam in Enlightenment Thought
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Islam in Enlightenment Thought Philosophes Negative on Islam Voltaire’s Fanaticism (1742) – Islam one more example of religious fanaticism Charles de Montesquieu – Spirit of the Law (1748) –Islam’s passivity made it subject to political despotism Philosophes Positive on Islam Deists Toland and Gibbon viewed Islam positively Lady Mary Wortley Montagu – Turkish Embassy Letters ( ) – praised Ottoman society / felt women were freer What were the enlightened philosophes views regarding Islam? Spoke with two voices regarding Islam VoltaireFanaticism, or Mohammed the Prophet(1742), “We must suppose that Muhammad, like all enthusiasts, violently impressed by his own ideas, retailed them in good faith, fortified them with fancies, deceived himself in deceiving others, and finally sustained with deceit a doctrine he believed to be good.” He felt that Islam in general represented simple one more example of the religious fanaticism he so often criticized among Christians. Toland Gibbon (a deist) and others, by contrast, spoke well of Islam. Believed that Islam derived from early Christian writings and thus was a form of Christianity. Montesquieu in his Persian Letters used Islamic culture as a foil to criticize European society. He also believed that the excessive influence of Islamic religious leader prevented the Ottoman Empire from adapting itself to new advances in technology. Lady Mary Wortley Montaguwrote of her experiences in Turkish Embassy Letters in which she praised much about Ottoman society, particularly its architecture and the smallpox vaccination. Muslims were not very curious about the Christian West. No Islamic writers showed much interest in contemporary European authors. The Ulama (the Islamic religious establishment) taught that God’s revelations to Muhammad meant that Islam had superseded Christianity.

AP European History The Encyclopedia Edited by Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert Collective work—over 100 authors—none women Important information about 18th century social and economic life Between 14,000 and 16,000 copies sold before 1789 Denis Diderot What two individuals were credited with the creation of the Encyclopedia? Denis Diderot and Jean Le Rond d’Alembert 17volumes of text, 11 volumes profusely illustratedbegan to be published in 1751, completed in1772. Centered primarily on technology—although history and philosophy were implements, technological innovations and science were emphasized. The Encyclopedia was in part a collective plea for freedom of expression. Many efforts were made to squash or censor it by the church. It was saved by Madame Pompador. More than 100 authors (most of the major philosophes contributed) No women although women were instrumental in protecting the authors and in spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment. Included most of the advanced, critical ideas of the time on religion, government, and philosophy, and practical ideas on ship construction, canal building, manufacturing and improved agriculture. 14,000-16,000 copies sold before 1789 Diderot said that in 50 years the Bible would be relegated to the trash heap of history. When he died, the Bible Society bought his house and produced Bibles there.

The Encyclopedia, cont’d
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Encyclopedia, cont’d Secularize learning Antiquity should provide intellectual and ethical models for civilization. Welfare of mankind depended on living at peace with neighbors, rather than pleasing God. “Good life” lay in the application of reason to human relationships Direct Result: Enlightenment ideas diffused over the continent even penetrating Russian and German intellectual and political thought. What were some of the principle beliefs of the encyclopedists? They wanted to secularize learning. The articles ignored divine law and concentrated on humanity and its immediate well being. Antiquity, rather than the Christian centuries should provide the intellectual and ethical models for civilization. The future welfare of humankind depended on living at peace with their neighbors, rather than pleasing God. The “good life” lay in the application of reason to human relationships in the here and now. What came about as a direct result of the publication of the Encyclopedia? Enlightenment ideas became more fully diffused over the continent even penetrating Russian and German intellectual and political thought.

AP European History “Barbarism lasts for centuries; it seems that it is our natural element; reason, and good taste are only passing.” ~Jean Le Rond ’Alembert

Becarria and Reform of Criminal Law
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Becarria and Reform of Criminal Law Italian philosophe Becarria wrote On Crimes and Punishment (1764) Against torture and capital punishment Wanted speedy trials & certain punishment Punishment should deter further crimes Purpose of laws is to guarantee happiness for as many human beings as possible Cesare Beccaria discusses criminal law and reform in what literary work? Beccaria Italian philosophe wrote On Crimes and Punishments wanted laws to conform with the rational laws of nature Attacked both torture and capital punishment Purpose of lawsto secure the greatest good or happiness for the greatest number of human beings Criminal justice system should ensure a speedy trial and certain punishment. The intent of punishment should be to deter further crime.

The Physiocrats and Economic Freedom
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Physiocrats and Economic Freedom Physiocrats were economic reformers Believed primary role of government—to protect property Prized agriculture above all—all economic production depended on it Physiocrats- economic reformers Believed that the primary role of government was to protect property and to permit the owners to use their property freely. **Felt that all economic production depended on sound agriculture** ** Prized agriculture above all** The physiocrats favored consolidation of small peasant holdings into larger more efficient farms. .

AP European History Adam Smith Wrote Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (1776) Most famous work of the Enlightenment Economic growth when people pursue own selfish self- interests Laissez-faire economics –limited government role in economy (“Let it be”) Four-stage theory of human societies hunting and gathering pastoral or herding agricultural commercial – society at its highest level Describe the economic principles of Adam Smith. Adam Smith—if anyone fit the image of the “absent minded professor”, it was Adam Smith. He forgot things, spoke awkwardly, and rambled as he walked. “I am a beau in nothing but my books,” Smith once said. Still, he had one of history’s keenest minds. At the age of 14, Smith was a student at a university in his native Scotland. There, and later in Paris, he met many influential thinkers of the Enlightenment. Wrote (1776)Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (took him 10 years to write Wealth of Nations) Believed economic liberty was the foundation of a natural economic system. He argued that the mercantilist system (regulations) should be abolished. He believed that these regulations hindered the expansion of wealth and production. It was a basic assumption of mercantilism that the earth’s resources are limited and scarce, so one nation can acquire wealth only at the expense of others. Smith saw the resources of nature—water, air, soil, and minerals—as boundless. Best way to encourage economic growth was to unleash individuals to pursue their own selfish economic interests. As self-interested individuals sought to enrich themselves by meeting the needs of others in the marketplace, the economy would expand. Consumers would find their wants met as manufacturers and merchants competed for their business. Believed that the resources of nature were boundless and should be exploited for the enrichment and comfort of humankind. Laissez-faire-“let it be”favored limited role for government in economic life (Laissez-faire described the economic outlook of 19th century liberals, many of whom were businessmen or industrialists who sought an end to government regulation of business. Proponents envisioned an era of free economic activity in Europe w/o tariff barriers (“free trade”). Thus factory owners, liberals, and free traders were all supporters of laissez-faire. Not so 19th century socialists, who saw laissez-faire as an obstacle to even minimal measures to help the working class, such as government safety inspections of factories. Adam Smith usually regarded as the founder of laissez-faire economic thought and policy

Consequences of Enlightened Political Thought
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Consequences of Enlightened Political Thought Most thought came from France Reformist agenda—very discontent with their own gov’t Divided on Proposed solutions— ranged from aristocratic reform, to democracy, and absolute monarchy Political Thought of the Philosophes The philosophes reformist agenda was very apparent in their political thought. They were discontented with the political features of their countries, especially France. Francecorruptness of the royal court, blundering of the administrative bureaucracy, less that glorious mid-century wars, and the power of the church Consequences: Most important political thought of the Enlightenment occurred in France. The French philosophes were divided on the proper solution to their country’s problemsfrom aristocratic reform to democracy to absolute monarchy

AP European History Baron d’Montesquieu Wrote Spirit of the Laws (1748) Admired Great Britain Espoused separation of powers—no one part of government completely in control (checks and balances) Favored a monarchy tempered by reformed aristocracy What was Montesquieu’s main idea behind his work, Spirit of the Laws? Montesquieulawyer, noble “of the robe”, member of a provincial parlement, member of Bordeaux Academy of Science. He had a comfortable life in French society, but saw the need for reform 1721 published The Persian Letterssatirizes contemporary institutions by using Islamic culture as a foil behind the humor lay the cutting edge of criticism. Most famous work, Spirit of Laws(after a visit to Britain)praised the British constitution as the wisest model for regulating the power of government. His interest in science, his hope for reform, and his admiration for Britain was the embodiment of the major elements of the Enlightenment. (Montesquieu opposed Voltaire’s concept of Enlightened Despotism. Voltaire turned to the idea of Enlightened Despotism b/c he was personally and intellectually opposed to rule by the nobility in France. The alternative to rule by the nobility, he reasoned, was rule by a monarch educated in the advanced outlook of the philosophes. Montesquieu, one of the few philosophes from the noble class, argued in his Spirit of Laws (1748) that power needed to be limited in gov’t. His solution, a separation of powers between different elements of the gov’t, was in reality a scheme to increase the power of the nobility at the expense of the monarch. Describe Montesquieu’s political reform. No set of political laws could apply to all people, at all times, in all places Best gov’t depended on country’s size, population, social and religious customs, economic structure, traditions and climate Montesquieu wanted political reform that would lead to a monarchy, tempered by a reformed aristocracy, the towns, and other corporate bodies that enjoyed liberties that the monarch had to respect, i.e. parlements. Parlements’ role was to limit the power of the monarchy and preserve the liberty of its subject. M. was a political conservative. Most influential ideas was the separation of powers in the government as he believed the British system to be divided (He was incorrect in his perception of the British government, however.) Implications: Montesquieu’s idea had profound and lasting effect on the constitutional form of democracy for more than two centuries.

Jean Jacques Rousseau: Radical Critique of Modern Society
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Jean Jacques Rousseau: Radical Critique of Modern Society Discourse on the Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (1750) –process of civilization and Enlightenment had corrupted human nature Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755) – blamed evil in the world on uneven distribution of property What was Rosseau’s great criticism regarding Enlightenment thinkers? Rosseaudifferent from Montesquieu, strange, isolated genius, never comfortable with other philosophes. He led a troubled life—few friendships—had numerous children who were abandoned for foundling hospitals. He had a deep antipathy toward the world and the society in which he lived. WroteDiscourse on the Moral Effect of the Arts and Sciencessaid that the process of civilization and Enlightenment had corrupted human nature. 1755 wroteDiscourse on the Origin of Inequalityblamed much of the evil of the world on the uneven distribution of property Questioned the concepts of material and intellectual progress and the morality of a society in which commerce and industry were regarded as the most important human activities. The other philosophes generally believed life would improve if people could enjoy more of the fruits of the earth or could produce more goods. Rosseau ask a more fundamental question, “What constitutes the good life?”

Jean Jacques Rousseau: A Radical Critique of Modern Society
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Jean Jacques Rousseau: A Radical Critique of Modern Society The Social Contract (1762) – society more important than individual members— each person can maintain individual freedom while being loyal member “All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains.” Influenced American and French Revolutions What does Rosseau discuss in his work, The Social Contract? The Social Contract(1762)attracted little attention at the time but became widely read in France by the end of the century. It does not propose specific reforms, but outlines the kind of political structure that Rousseau believed would overcome the evils of contemporary politics and society. The Social Contract Opens with the declaration: “All men are born free, but everywhere they are in chains.” Complete quote, “Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains. How did this change come about? I do not know. What can make it legitimate? That question I think I can answer.” He then defends the chains of a properly organized society over its members. Suggests that society is more important than its individual members because it is society that makes a person what they are. Independent human being living alone can achieve very little. In his two previous discourses, Rousseau had stated that the contemporaneous European society was not such a community; it was merely an aggregate of competing individuals whose chief social goal was to preserve selfish independence in spite of all potential social bonds and obligations. He envisioned a society in which each person could maintain personal freedom while behaving as a loyal member of the larger community. He defined freedom as obedience to the law (as had Calvin and Plato). The concept of the general will is normally equivalent to the will of a majority of voting citizens. Democratic participation in decision making would bind the individual citizen to the community. He believed the general will (as shown by a vote) must always be right and that to obey the general will is to be free. This argument led him to the conclusion that under certain circumstances some people must be forced to be free. Thus his politics constituted a justification for radical direct democracy and for collective action against individual citizens. This was an assault on the 18th century cult of the individual and the fruits of selfishness. He was at odds with the commercial spirit and would have disapproved of the main thrust of Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, preferring instead a study on the virtue of nations. Smith wanted people to be prosperous, Rousseau wanted them to be good even if being good meant they might remain poor. Loyalty to the community should be encouraged because human beings were not independent individuals but were enmeshed in necessary social relationships. He believed a properly governed society should decree a civic religion based on the creed of deism. This shared religion, with observance enforced by repressive legislation, could, he argued help unify a society. Implications: Rousseau had only marginal impact in his own time Other philosophes questioned his critique of material improvement Aristocrats and royal ministers did not welcome his proposed radical democracy. Later generations would turn to his thoughtsmany writers of the 19th and 20th centuriesespecially influenced the French Revolution

Enlightened Critics or European Empires
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Enlightened Critics or European Empires Few Enlightenment philosophers criticized Europeans on moral grounds Conquest of the Americas Treatment of Native Americans Enslavement of Africans Three Ideas from the Critics “human beings deserve some modicum of moral and political respect simply because they are human beings” different cultures should be respected & understood, not destroyed human beings may develop distinct cultures possessing intrinsic values that cannot be compared because each culture possesses deep inner social and linguistic complexities that make any simple comparison impossible Few Enlightenment philosophers criticized Europeans on moral grounds Conquest of the Americas Treatment of Native Americans Enslavement of Africans Three Ideas from the Critics (1) “human beings deserve some modicum of moral and political respect simply because they are human beings” (2) different cultures should be respected & understood, not destroyed (3) human beings may develop distinct cultures possessing intrinsic values that cannot be compared because each culture possesses deep inner social and linguistic complexities that make any simple comparison impossible

Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Women in the Thought and Practice of the Enlightenment Montesquieu believed in equality of the sexes but had a traditional view of family and marriage The Encyclopedia suggested ways to improve women’s lives, but did not suggest reform Rousseau – felt women should be subordinate to men Women and men occupied different spheres What were the philosophies views toward the conditions of women? Women helped significantly to promote the careers of many of the philosophes through their salons and political contacts. Madame Pompadour, mistress of Louis XV had helped block circulation of works attacking the Encyclopedia. Philosophes on the whole were not strong feminists. Many urged better and broader education for women. But in general, their views of women in society were rather traditional. They advocated no radical change in the social condition of women. Montesquieu believed women were not naturally inferior to men and should have wider role in society. He sympathetically observed the value placed on women’s appearance and the prejudice women met as they aged. Yet there were limits to his willingness to consider social change in regard to the role of women. In the Spirit of the Laws, he indicated a belief in the equality of the sexes; he had a traditional view of marriage and family and expected men to dominate those institutions. Although he supported the right of women to divorce and opposed laws directly oppressive of women, he upheld the ideal of female chastity. None of the contributors to the Encyclopedia were women. Women were discussed primarily in the family context—as daughters, wives, and mothers—and motherhood was to be their most important occupation. They displayed a double standard on sexuality. Jean-Jacques Rousseaumost radical of all Enlightenment thinkers urged a very traditional and conservative role for women. In Emile, he posited the idea that men and women occupy separate spheres. (See p. 609 excerpt) He assigned women to the domestic sphere alone. In spite of these views and his ill treatment of the woman who bore his many children which he abandoned to foundling hospital, he achieved a vast following among women in the 18th century. He did stress the importance of their emotions and feelings. He portrayed the domestic life and the role of wife and mother as a noble and fulfilling vocation.

AP European History Mary Wollstonecraft A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) – defended equality of women based on human reason Opposed aspects of Fr. Rev. unfavorable to women Argued with Voltaire—To confine women to separate spheres as Rousseau had was to make them sensual slaves of men, victims of male tyranny, never able to achieve their own moral or intellectual identity. Describe the arguments Mary Wollstonecraft brought forth in her work, A Vindication of the Rights of Women(1792). Wollstonecraft-died of fever after childbirth She opposed certain policies of the French Revolution that were unfavorable to women, which were inspired by Rousseau. To confine women to their separate spheres as Rousseau had was to make them the sensual slaves of men, victims of male tyranny, never able to achieve their own moral or intellectual identity. Denying good education to women would impede the progress of all humanity. She demanded liberty for women that the male writers of the Enlightenment had championed for men for more than a century. Her daughter, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley, wrote Frankenstein. The daughter was also married to Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Rococo and Neoclassical Styles in Eighteenth-Century Art
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Rococo and Neoclassical Styles in Eighteenth-Century Art Rococo style of art embraced lavish decoration with pastel colors became style of French aristocracy famous artists included Jean-Antoine Watteau, Francois Boucher, and Jean-Honore Fragonard Neo-classical style art went back to the ancient world concerned with public life more than the intimate families of rococo famous artists included Jacques-Louis David and Jean Antoine Houdon

AP European History Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment

Enlightened Absolutism
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Enlightened Absolutism monarchial government in which central absolutist administration was strengthened at cost of church, parliament, or diets Monarchs Frederick II of Prussia Joseph II of Austria Catherine II of Russia “Enlightened Absolutism”— Several European rulers who actually embraced many of the reforms set forth by the philosophes. It was monarchical government dedicated to strengthening the central absolutist administration. Most were neither genuinely enlightened nor truly absolute in the exercise of royal power. Many philosophes believed the gov’t reform would be accomplished by benevolent absolute monarchs. Absolutism was still a powerful institution on the continent, and the so-called “enlightened despots” cultivated the philosophes whole paying lip service to their ideals.

Frederick the Great of Prussia— “first servant of the state”
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Frederick the Great of Prussia— “first servant of the state” Promotion through merit – work and education rather than birth would decide who ruled Prussia Religious Toleration – for Christian, Muslim & Jew Administrative and Economic Reforms – legal reform included abolishing torture and limiting number of capital crimes Examples: Frederick II of Prussia aka “the Great” (most important enlightenment political ruler in the 18th century) gave Voltaire place at court. Called himself “first servant of the state.” He was tolerant of Catholics and Jews but almost all appointments were Lutherans. Frederick II of Prussia aka “the Great”, in explaining his view of the obligations of a king ,said, “The prince is to the nation he governs what the head is to the man; it is his duty to see, think, and act for the whole community, that he may procure it every advantage of which it is capable. He must be active, possess integrity, and collect his whole powers, that he may be able to run the career he has commenced.”

AP European History Joseph II of Austria Centralization of Authority – aimed to extend the empire at the expense of Poland, Bavaria, and the Ottoman Empire Ecclesiastical Policies – religious toleration and bringing the Roman Catholic Church under royal control Economic and Agrarian Reform improved transportation and trade abolished serfdom Fostered freedom of the press and speech Joseph II imposed a series of religious, legal and social reform the ideas for which had come from the philosophes. What did Joseph II of Austria believe about religious toleration? Joseph II (r ) has been called the “ideal Enlightened Despot” b/c he abolished serfdom, fostered freedom of the press, granted religious freedom to most Christian sects and to Jews, but suppressed the influence of the RCCson of Maria Theresa and her co-ruler for 15 years, austere, humorless, slept on straw, ate little but beef, sincerely wished to improve the lot of his people. Austria was very diverse and not very unified. Favored religious toleration and even extended it to Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox—gave Jews relief but not full equality. He believed that religious toleration would make his subjects more loyal and lead to greater human knowledge. He tried to increase the power of the central monarchy but was unsuccessful with the Magyars. At the beginning of the Fr. Rev. he turned his back on the Enlightenment—recall that his sister was Marie Antoinette.

Catherine the Great of Russia
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History Catherine the Great of Russia limited administrative reform – local control of the nobility economic growth – opened up trade and favored the expansion of the urban middle class territorial expansion – to warm weather ports along the Baltic and Black Seas Catherine II of Russia (see picture on p. 616)(born a German princess who understood the fragility of the Romanov dynasty’s base of power. She married Peter III, a nephew of Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great’s daughter. Many considered Peter III to mad. He immediately exempted the nobles from compulsory military service and made peace with Frederick the Great whom he greatly admired, thus saving Prussia from defeat in the Seven Years War. His best achievement was to marry Catherine. She lived for 20 years in misery and frequent danger at the court of Elizabeth. She was shrewd and her experience in a court crawling rumors , intrigue, and conspiracy had taught her how to survive. She exhibited neither love nor fidelity toward her demented husband. A few months after his accession as tsar, Peter was deposed and murdered with Catherine’s approval, if not her aid, and she was proclaimed empress.) corresponded with Voltaire and subsidized Diderot. She embraced their ideas in name only and was unwilling or unable to actually put them into action. She issued the Charter of the Nobility which guaranteed nobles many rights and privileges. She really had little choice but to favor the nobles. They had the capacity to topple her and there were too few educated subjects in her realm to establish an independent bureaucracy, the treasury could not afford an army strictly loyal to the crown. So Catherine wisely made a virtue of necessity. By making friends of her nobles she strengthened the stability of her crown. Catherine made limited administrative reforms and had a policy of economic growth. She also won a warm water port on the Black Sea through a war with the Ottoman Empire. The territory she gained was at the expense of the Crimean tartars. The Pugachev rebellion left Catherine with a real fear of social and political upheaval. When Fr. Rev. broke out—she censored books based on Enlightenment thought and sent offensive writers to exile in Siberia.

AP European History Gambling with the Lives of Serfs, by Gustave Dore

The Partition of Poland
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The Partition of Poland land split by Russia, Austria, and Prussia proved that without a strong bureaucracy, monarchy and army, a nation could not survive **First Partition of Poland** Frederick the Great made a proposal to Russia and Austria that would give each something it wanted, prevent conflict among the powers, and save appearances—the partition of Poland. The helpless Polish aristocracy, paid the price for failing to develop a strong central government. The partition showed that any nation that had not established a strong monarchy, bureaucracy, and army could no longer compete within the European state system. Russia and Prussia partitioned Poland again in 1793, and Russia, Prussia, and Austria partitioned it a third time in 1795, removing it from the map of Europe for more than a century.

The End of the Eighteenth Century in Central and Eastern Europe
Chapter 17: Age of Enlightenment AP European History The End of the Eighteenth Century in Central and Eastern Europe nations became more conservative and politically more repressive fading monarchs Frederick the Great of Prussia – grew remote with age and left the aristocracy to fill government posts Joseph II of Austria – in response to criticism turns to censorship and the secret police Catherine the Great of Russia – peasant uprisings lead to fears of social and political upheaval 32. Robot—labor that landowners could demand from peasants

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