1. Business Logistics 420 Public Transportation
Lectures 16 (Revised)
Policy Issues III: Public Transportation and Air Quality

2. Lecture Objectives
Provide an overview the transportation-related air pollution problem in the US
Describe options for reducing transportation sector’s contribution to air pollution
Outline the history of legislative and regulatory attempts to reduce air pollution from motor vehicles
Evaluate public transit’s potential contribution to air quality improvements

3. Transportation As a Major Source of Air Pollution
83% Carbon Monoxide (CO)
41% Hydrocarbons (VOC)
40% Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)
.2% Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
9% Particulate

4. Carbon Monoxide Trends
From: VMT Growth and Improved Air Quality: How Long Can Progress Continue?”, FHWA

5. VOC Trends
From: VMT Growth and Improved Air Quality: How Long Can Progress Continue?”, FHWA

6. Nitrogen Oxide Trends
From :VMT Growth and Improved Air Quality: How Long Can Progress Continue?”, FHWA

7. Ways To Reduce Air Pollution from Mobile (Transportation) Sources
Solutions generally the same as for energy conservation
Reduce demand
Shift demand to less polluting modes
Clean up modes

8. Ways To Reduce Air Pollution from Mobile (Transportation) Sources (Continued)
Major difference is that air quality is not a major issue in all areas
The benefit from reducing pollution in terms of health costs and other pollution-related costs varies depending on the overall or ambient air quality in a region
Example, the benefit of further reducing pollution from vehicles is lower in State College than in Los Angeles or Baltimore

9. Clean Air Act of 1970
The major piece of federal air quality legislation that is still in effect as amended
Set Ambient Air Quality Standards for urbanized areas, i.e., standards for the amount of several types of pollutants allowed in the community’s air.
Also set vehicle emissions standards

10. 1990 Amendments to Clean Air Act
Adopted at the same time as the major transportation legislation, ISTEA
The Clean Air Act amendments set the rules, ISTEA implemented and paid for the changes

11. 1990 Amendments to Clean Air Act (Continued)
Set more stringent emission standards for cars, trucks, and buses
Set national Ambient Air Quality Standards
Identified categories of “non attainment and identified cities that fell into each category
Required special “conformity” tests before allowing new highway construction
Included sanctions on states for non conformity (lose federal highway funds)

12. Categories of Non Attainment
Extreme -- Los Angeles
Severe -- Philadelphia, New York, Baltimore, and 5 other cities
Serious -- Washington DC, Boston, 12 other cities
Moderate -- Pittsburgh, Reading and many others
Marginal -- all other Pa cities except State College and Williamsport

13. Two Major US Strategies for Reducing Pollution from Mobile Sources
Clean up vehicles
More stringent emissions controls on internal combustion vehicles
Low emission vehicles
Zero emission vehicles (for example, electric cars)
Stringent requirements on buses
Shift travel from private vehicles

14. Strategies to Reduce Pollution From Vehicles
New controls on engines
Reformulated gas (one of the sources of the recent run up in gasoline costs)
Emission system inspections
Low emission vehicles (LEV)
Zero emission vehicles -- the California experiment

15. Strategies to Reduce Auto Travel, AKA, Transportation Control Measures
Restrict auto travel
Facilitate transit
Improve transit

16. Restrict Auto Travel
Trip reduction ordinances and the CAA requirement for Employee Commuting Options (ECO)
Vehicle use restrictions (days of week)
Auto-restricted zones

17. Facilitate Transit TMAs Pass subsidies Ridesharing offices
Area wide ridesharing

18. Improve Transit
New services
Marketing
Park and Ride

20. Big Question -- How Can We Modify Traveler Behavior to Shift Modes?
Pollution benefits resulting from transit use only occur if individuals chose to ride
Major resistance to CAA transportation control measures led to abandonment of most of them -- reason cited -- don’t know how to change behaviors

21. Employee Commuting Options
1990 CAA amendments required areas with extreme or severe pollution to implement Employee Trip Reduction Programs, or, by another name, Employee Commuting Options (ECO)
In these areas, employers with more than 100 employees had to increase average vehicle occupancy by 25%

22. Definition of Average Vehicle Occupancy (AVO)
Average vehicle occupancy for all employee commuting trips during peak hours within an area
Estimated by dividing the number of people reporting to work throughout an area over the course of a normal M-F work week by the number of vehicles in which they commute

23. Example AVO Calculation
Single Occupant Vehicle -- one person, one vehicle 1/1 = 1
Four-person carpool -- four people, one vehicle 4/1 = 4
Bus rider, bicyclist, pedestrian person/0 vehicles

24. Example of Implementation
Connecticut did survey of employees, determined AVO = 1.19 so under the regulations, needed to increase to 1.49 (25 percent increase over base)
Current situation = say 1,190 employees arrive in 1,000 vehicles (the 1.19 AVO)
To comply in future, the 1,190 persons will have to arrive in no more than 800 vehicles

25. Example of Implementation (Continued)
AVO Required = 1,190/800 = 1.49
How to reduce vehicles by 200
Have 400 employees that now drive alone form two-person carpools
Generate 4 bus loads of riders (50 per bus)
Form 20 vanpools with 11 persons each

26. Employer Options to Comply
Offering cash incentives for ridesharing/ using mass transit;
Imposing parking fees;
Instituting preferential parking for ridesharers;
Instituting compressed work weeks or staggered scheduling;
Providing a comprehensive ridematching service;
Subsidizing mid-day shuttles to local shopping areas;

27. Employer Options to Comply (Continued)
Providing company-owned vehicles for ridesharing;
Providing a guaranteed ride home program;
Promoting bicycling and walking to work;
Promoting the establishment of on-site amenities like banks, drug stores, and restaurants; and
Offering telecommuting and work-at-home options.

28. ECO History
Many communities tried to comply in early 1990s, but others (NYC) resisted
Environmental Protection Agency essentially abandoned the program in 1994
Said only incentives could be offered
Could not force any changes in behavior
Neither employers or states would be penalized or sanctioned

29. Study Questions
What are the major pollutants that are largely attributable to transportation?
What are the major strategies that can be and/or have been tried to reduce pollution from transportation sources?
Does transit have a role to play in reducing air pollution? What is it?