1. Memory: Retrieval and Problems
AP Psychology

3. Memory Retrieval and Forgetting

4. Let’s Test Your LTM! You will see several words, one at a time
Do whatever you can to try and remember as many of the words as you can
At the end of the list, try to recall as many words as you can
The following demonstration was created by Thomas P. Pusateri (2004) for Thomson/Wadsworth. The following are his instructions for this demonstration.
ALL-PURPOSE MEMORY DEMONSTRATION
I first saw this demonstration at a workshop presentation by Douglas Bernstein from the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. He could not locate the original source of this demonstration, which was introduced to him by one of his teaching assistants in introductory psychology. Before presenting the words, tell students that you will show them a list of words, and their task is to memorize the entire list. Have the students recall the list immediately after you present the last word; do not use a distractor task, otherwise you may not produce a recency effect.
Ask about ten volunteers to report their recall for the words, expose each word individually, and ask for a show of hands from those who recalled the words. Ask the class to explain why the volunteers did well in recalling these words prior to exposing the line that describes the memory effect. Here is a brief explanation of each memory effect, with some elaboration you may use in your discussion:
Primacy effect. The words “bed” and “clock” were the first two words in this list. Most students will recall these words due to the greater opportunity for rehearsing these words.
Recency effect. The words “snore” and “pillow” were the last two words in the list. Most students will recall these words because they are still in their immediate attention (short-term memory) during recall. You may wish to ask students how recall for these words could be disrupted. The answer is by introducing a distractor task after presentation of the list.
Repetition/Rehearsal. Words in the middle of a list are often not well-recalled, however, most students will recall the word “night”. This word was repeated three times in the list, so students had additional opportunity to rehearse this word compared to other words in the middle of the list.
Distinctiveness. Most of the words are associated with each other. However, one word in the list, “artichoke” is so different than the others that it is often recalled, even though it appears in the middle of the list. You may discuss this as an example of deeper processing of a word that is distinctive, salient, and unusual.
Semantic Organization. First ask the volunteers if they recalled the word “toss”. (You may want to include the entire class in this question, to produce a larger potential response rate.) Then, ask those who recalled “toss” whether they followed recall of the word “toss” immediately by recall of the word “turn”. There will be several students who recall the words as a pair, even though they are separated in the list and “turn” precedes “toss”. You may discuss this as a form of semantic organization (which is more thoroughly discussed in Chapter 9 of Reed’s text). I also tie it into the definition of elaboration of memory. The words are very highly associated and easily connected together in students’ recall.
“False Memory”. Ask the whole class if anyone recalled the word “sleep”. Ask those students who recalled this word to attempt to recall where in the list the word appeared. Was it in the first half or the last half of the list? Most students who recall the word will report that they “know” it is in the list, but they cannot “remember” exactly where the word appeared. You may then discuss current research by Jacoby, Roediger, and other researchers on the “know/remember” distinction. You may also tie this into a discussion of other, more elaborate examples of possible false memory (e.g., the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, and the current controversy surrounding adult memory of childhood sexual abuse).

5. Let’s Test Your LTM! Bed Artichoke Clock Insomnia Dream Rest Night
Turn
Mattress
Snooze
Nod
Artichoke
Insomnia
Rest
Toss
Night
Alarm
Nap
Snore
Pillow

6. Let’s Test Your LTM!
Write down the words you saw!

7. Here’s the Words Bed Artichoke Clock Insomnia Dream Rest Night Toss
Turn
Mattress
Snooze
Nod
Artichoke
Insomnia
Rest
Toss
Night
Alarm
Nap
Snore
Pillow

8. Memory Demonstration Did you Recall? Bed or Clock Snore or Pillow
Night
Artichoke
Toss and Turn
Sleep
Explanation
Primacy
Recency
Spacing Effect
Distinctiveness
Clustering
False Memory

9. Memory Retrieval We can recognize more than we can recall.
Recognition is easier than recall because it provides retrieval cues or hints that help us remember where the information is stored in our memory.

10. Recall vs. Recognition tests
Recall Tests
Recognition tests
Must retrieve info learned earlier.
Two step process:
1) generate a mental list,
2) recognize the answer from the list.
Examples: Fill-in-the- blank test; essay exams
Only need to identify the correct answer.
1 step process:
1) recognize answer from the list. List was already generated for you.
Example: Multiple choice tests
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

11. What is the capital of Vermont?
Recall vs. Recognition
What is the capital of Vermont?
Raise your hand if you know the answer
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall

12. Recall vs. Recognition What is the capital of Vermont?
A. Brattleboro
B. Montpelier
C. Rutland
D. Cabot
Raise your hand if you know the answer
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

13. Recall vs. Recognition What is the capital of Vermont?
A. Brattleboro
B. Montpelier
C. Rutland
D. Cabot
Which was easier: recall or recognition?
For your psychology exam, would you rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test?
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

14. What affects retrieval?
Priming – the activation of particular associations in our memory; is often unconscious.
For example, we may suddenly remember something that we thought we had forgotten when we smell or taste something associated with the memory.
In this case, the smell is priming our memory

15. What affects Retrieval?
Context effects – we are more likely to remember something if we learn it in the same context. For example, you will likely do better on a psychology test if you take it in this room.
An example of the Encoding Specificity Principle!

16. What affects Retrieval? Memory and Mood
State-dependent memory – we are more likely to remember something if we are in the same psychological state (happy, sad, etc.) that we were in when we learned it.
An example of the Encoding Specificity Principle!

17. What affects Retrieval? Memory and Mood
Memories are mood- congruent – that is, if we are in a good mood, we are more likely to recall events as positive.
If we are in a bad mood, we are more likely to recall events as negative.
This is true even if we are recalling the SAME event in two different states of mind.
An example of the Encoding Specificity Principle!

18. What affects Retrieval? Memory and Mood
For example, let’s say you went on a family vacation to the beach and there were tons of mosquitoes and your parents never let you out of their sight, and the weather and beach was beautiful.
If someone asks you about your vacation later, what aspects of it you will remember (the bad or good ones) depends on your current mood.

19. Memory and Mood
Mood-congruent memories explain how depression can easily become a downward spiral.
A person in a depressed mood recalls or interprets events negatively, thus leaving them feeling even worse.

20. Forgetting Forgetting – Forgetting is an important adaptation.
If we couldn’t forget most of the information that enters our senses, we would be distracted most of the time.

21. Why do we Forget?
Encoding Failure – information never enters long-term memory; usually because we didn’t make an effort to pay attention and rehearse the information

22. Why might Encoding Failure Happen?
When you don’t use elaborative rehearsal, or provide enough meaning, to a term or event,
People fail to encode information because:
It is unimportant to them
It is not necessary to know the information
A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

23. Why do we Forget?
Ex: If a person does not dial their childhood phone number for a few years, then the memory of that number will start to decay, or fade away.
Decay theory is the gradual disappearance of a memory because the memory has not been thought about, or retrieved, from long- term memory into short- term memory

24. Decay Biology-based theory Theory not widely favored today
If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace
Theory not widely favored today
Ability of people to retrieve memories from long ago with retrieval cues would show this is not true.

25. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

26. Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2.
The more time we spend learning new information, the more we retain.

27. Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

28. How to combat the Forgetting Curve:
Overlearning
Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned
Rehearsing past the point of mastery
Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

29. Forgetting as retrieval failure
Retrieval—process of accessing stored information
Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it
Retrieval Failure – inability to “locate” memories
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval X
Encoding
Short-term
memory
Long-term
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory

30. Why do We Forget?
Tip-of-the-tongue, occurs when a retrieval cue is not strong enough to retrieve, or trigger the memory stored in long-term memory.
Tip of the Tongue

31. Why do We Forget?
Interference theory is the process through which either the storage or retrieval of a memory impairs other information and memories
Proactive Interference
Retroactive Interference

32. Why do We Forget?- Retrieval Failure
Proactive interference occurs when previous, old information affects, or interferes, with trying to remember new information.
An example of proactive interference is when you try and can’t remember your NEW locker combination because you keep on dialing your old locker combination.

33. Why do We Forget?- Retrieval Failure
Retroactive interference occurs when recently learned new information affects, or interferes, with remembering old information.
An example of retroactive interference is when you can’t remember your OLD class schedule because your new class schedule is interfering, or causing you to forget your old class schedule.

34. P= Proactive O= Old interferes R= Retroactive N= New interferes
How can we remember….
When trying to remember the difference between Proactive and Retroactive, it may be helpful to think about porn.
Yes, P.O.R.N.
P= Proactive O= Old interferes R= Retroactive N= New interferes

35. Why do We Forget?- Retrieval Failure
Motivated Forgetting– people repress or suppress memories that are painful or that conflict with their self-image.
Undesired memory is held back from awareness
Suppression— conscious forgetting
Repression— unconscious forgetting (Freudian)

36. The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)
Stimuli are recorded by our senses and held briefly in sensory memory.
Some of this information is processed into short-term memory and encoded through rehearsal .
Information then moves into long-term memory where it can be retrieved later.

37. The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968)

39. Amnesia
Amnesia is the loss of memory

40. Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to recall past memories due to an injury to the head
Tends to be temporary.
As the brain starts to heal from an injury, the memories start to come back.

41. Amnesia
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories due to damage to the hippocampus
“50 First-dates” is an example of anterograde amnesia
she could not form any new memories

42. Clive Wearing Clive Wearing The man with no short-term memory
What type of Amnesia would this be?
Clive Wearing

43. Jill Price The woman who never forgets What issues might this cause?

44. False Memories

45. Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors
Why do the details change over time?
Two general areas that errors occur in memory reconstruction
Info stored before the memory occurred may interfere
Info stored after the memory occurred may interfere

46. Sources of Potential Errors
Source Confusion – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten.
This could be attributing an imagined event to real life or attributing a story read in a book to your own childhood.
False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory.
False Memory-Lost in the Mall

47. Sources of Potential Errors
Can happen in everyday conversation
"Somebody says, 'Mary is so effervescent,' and then the word 'effervescent' keeps coming up."
Cryptomnesia stems from a failure to simultaneously engage in creative thinking and monitor where incoming ideas are coming from, according to Marsh's research.
Cryptomnesia – a seemingly new or original memory is actually based on an unrecalled previous memory.
inadvertent plagiarism

48. Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Does research in memory construction
Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Demonstrated the misinformation effect

49. Memory Construction-False Memories
Misinformation Effect – If we are primed with misleading information, we are likely to incorporate it into our memory; As we retell stories, we will fill make guesses about memory gaps.
These guesses then become part of our memory.
Affects Eyewitness Testimony
The Bunny Effect (Priming)

50. Memory Distortion
Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas
Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information
Do politicians do this? How?
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas

51. Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each other?”
Memory construction
Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

52. Average Speed Estimate
Loftus Results
Word Used in Question
Average Speed Estimate
Smashed
41m.p.h.
Collided
39 m.p.h.
Bumped
38 m.p.h.
Hit
34 m.p.h.
Contacted
32 m.p.h.
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)

53. Eyewitness Testimony Scripts—type of schema
Mental organization of events in time
Example of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

54. Eyewitness Testimony Recall not an exact replica of original events
What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources
Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas
Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event
Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

55. You Be the Eyewitness Imagine you are at a gas station buying milk
A man walks in, threatens the employee at the counter, robs the cash register, and runs out
The entire ordeal lasts about five seconds
This is the man you saw…

57. You Be the Eyewitness
The police have asked you to help them identify the perpetrator
They will show you a set of pictures, and it is your responsibility to select the picture of the man you saw rob the gas station…

59. How Did You Do? So, which picture did you choose? Were you right?
And the correct answer was... #2
Were you right?
What does this tell you about eyewitness testimony?

60. Implanting Memories and Eyewitness Testimony
Do they play a big role?
When Eyes Deceive- Eyewitness Testimony ure=related
What kind of impact did the professor have in implanting false memories?

61. Crime Scene Challenge
Now that your eyes and brain are warmed up, let’s test your observation skills a bit more
You will have 2 minutes to study a photograph of a crime scene on the next slide
Try to pay close attention to details
You are not allowed to write anything down until time is up
Ready?

63. Answer Each Question Below:
1. What color was the coffee mug? Blue Red Yellow
2. When was the deadline? Yesterday Today Tomorrow
3. What time was on the clock on the wall? : : :55
4. How many sticky notes were on the whiteboard?
5. What was NOT in the picture? Stapler Trash Can Printer
6. What was the name on the plaque?
Bill Brian Carl
7. What color was the victim’s shirt?
Black Blue Red
8. How many plants were in the picture?
None One Two
9. What color was the marker in the drawer? Red Blue Green
10. Where was the book?
On a box In the trash can Under the body

64. Check Your Answers Yellow Brian Today Blue 11:05 Two 6 Green Stapler
On a box

65. Eyewitness Testimony Picking Cotton Part 1 Picking Cotton Part 2
How accurate is eyewitness testimony?
Let’s see it in action!
Picking Cotton Part 1
Picking Cotton Part 2

66. Factors that Influence Memory

67. How can we tell if memories are true or false?
The hippocampus is equally active when a person recounts true and false memories. However, other areas (such as association areas) are only active when a person recounts a true memory.