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PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS
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What is research? Samples- relatively small group out of a whole population under study Must be representative of the population in question Random sample- each individual has an equal chance of being represented Stratified sample- deliberately pick individuals who represent the various subgroups
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Methods of Research Naturalistic Observation Observe behavior in natural environment Avoid disturbing and stay inconspicuous Case Studies Most are long-term observations with diaries, tests, and interviews Very powerful research tool, but cannot prove or disprove Surveys Most practical way to gather data on attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of large numbers of people Can include questionnaires, interviews
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Methods of Research Longitudinal Studies Studies same group of people at regular interviews over a period of years Cross-Sectional Studies Randomly selected groups organized on basis of age Less expensive and time consuming than longitudinal studies Correlations and Explanation Want to examine relationship between two sets of observations and how they relate Does not mean cause and effect
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Experiments Enables investigator to control the situation and decrease possible influences Has hypothesis, variables, experimental group, control group Can determine if independent variable influences behavior and how it does so Final results do not constitute the final word on the subject Experiment must be replicated
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Ethical Issues Ethics- methods of conduct, or standards, for proper and responsible behavior Psychologists are responsible for dignity and welfare of participants Must obey all state and federal laws and professional standards Rights must be agreed on for researchers and participants before starting
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Ethical Issues When obtaining consent, everyone must be fully informed Deception is used only if no better alternative is available, must not interfere with willingness to participate The welfare and confidentiality of all participants are to be protected
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Problems and Solutions in Research Self-fulfilling prophecy- having expectations about a behavior and then acting in some way to carry out that behavior Single-blind or double-blind techniques used to avoid Single-blind experiment- participants are “blind” about treatment given Double-blind- both researchers and participants are “blind” about the treatment given
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The Milgram Experiment 1960s Stanley Milgram Would participants administer painful shocks to others because an authority figure’s instruction? 2,000 paid male volunteers “Learners” recited a memorized list Every mistake required volunteer to deliver an electronic shock Each shock would increase in voltage
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The Milgram Experiment “Learners” pretended to be shocked, volunteers thought it was real Although it seemed hard, 62% of volunteers delivered a full range of shock up to maximum voltage Later, volunteers were told that no actual shocking took place Was this single-blind or double-blind? Was this ethical?
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The Placebo Effect Placebo effect- a change in a participant's illness or behavior that results from a belief that the treatment will have an effect, rather than the actual treatment 1961 study-Experimental groups given “new drug”, control group given no drugs at all After 6 weeks, 53-80% of experimental group noticed benefits No group was given actual drugs during study
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