1. Sudanic States Led by a council of elders. Based on an ethnic core and conquered neighboring peoples. Rulers were sacred individuals separated from their subjects by rituals. Most important were Mali and Songhay.

2. City and Village Regional towns, such as Jenne and Timbuktu had scholars, craft specialists, foreign merchants. Timbuktu was famous for it’s library and university. Military expansion of Mali and Songhay contributed to it’s strength.

3. Songhay Niger Valley Independent in 7 th C. By 1010, rulers were Muslims. Freedom from Mali and becomes a trading state. Takes over central Sudan. Islamic and indigenous traditions combined.

4. Political life Larger states were ruled by dominant groups. Islam provided a universal faith and fixed law that served common interests. Indigenous patterns persisted. Rulers enforced authority through Muslim officials. Slaves to the Islamic world. Demand for Eunuchs and concubines increased.

5. Coastal Trade Swahili on East Coast of Africa Bantu-speaking migrants reached and mixed with indigenous Africans. Spread to Madagascar. Bantu, Islam and Swahili emerged in trading ports. Towns flourished with trade and foreigners.

6. Yoruba and Benin Non-Bantu speaking people Highly urbanized agriculturists Small-city states Divine kings and elaborate courts. Lineages still controlled provinces.

7. Kongo and Mwene Mutapa Lower Congo region Agricultural. Skilled in weaving, pottery making, blacksmithing and carving. Gender division of labor. Family-based villages Federation of states. Large buildings, spreads to Indian Ocean and Zimbabwe.