1. VLSI Design
Introduction

2. An Overview Acronym of VLSI
Very-Large-Scale Integration
A VLSI contains more than a million or so switching devices or logic gates
Early in the first decade of the 21st century, the actual number of transistors has exceeded 100 million

3. Why Make ICs Integration improves size speed power
Integration reduce manufacturing costs
(almost) no manual assembly

4. Integrated Circuits Trends
An entire circuit is manufactured in a single piece of silicon, first appeared around 1960
At that time only a few simple gates offering primitive logic functions such as not, nand, nor etc. could be accommodated (SSI)
By 1970 MSI circuits with about a thousand transistors appeared
By 1980 LSI circuits of approximately one hundred thousand devices were possible

5. IC Evolution SSI – Small Scale Integration (early 1970s)
contained 1 – 10 logic gates
MSI – Medium Scale Integration
logic functions, counters
LSI – Large Scale Integration
first microprocessors on the chip
VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration
now offers 64-bit microprocessors, complete with cache memory (L1 and often L2), floating-point arithmetic unit(s), etc.

6. IC Evolution Bipolar technology TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
ECL (emitter-coupled logic)
MOS (Metal-oxide-silicon)
Bi-CMOS - hybrid Bipolar, CMOS (for high speed)
GaAs - Gallium Arsenide (for high speed)
Si-Ge - Silicon Germanium (for RF)

7. Choice of Technology
Two distinct types of technology are fabricated in silicon based upon
BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)
MOS (Metallic Oxide Semiconductor)
Since processing of these technologies is very different, it is impractical to mix them up within a chip.
MOS logic occupies much smaller area of silicon than the equivalent BJT logic.
MOS technology has a much higher potential packing density.
A MOS logic circuit requires appreciably less current and hence less power than its bipolar counter part.
However, bipolar circuits operate faster than MOS circuits

8. Choice of MOS and BJT
Even so, the speed-power product for MOS logic compares favorably with that of BJT logic.
The structure of an MOS transistor is much simpler than that of bipolar devices and this makes manufacturing process easier
This in turn should result in fewer faults occurring in fabrication (high yield)
Dynamic logic circuits cannot be implemented in bipolar technology
Thus in terms of area, power dissipated, yield and flexibility MOS technology is superior to BJT

9. Moore’s Law
Gordon Moore cofounder of Intel Corporation visualized in the 1970’s that chip building technology would improve very quickly
He projected that the number of transistors on a chip would double about every 18 months

10. EVIDENCE OF MOORE’S LAW
ACCORDING TO GORDEN MOORE -
(in millions)
1996
MID 1997
1999
YEAR 5 10 20 40
MID 2001
Transistor Count – 5 Million
Pentium-I Came In 1996
Pentium-IV Came In 2001
Transistor Count – 43 Million

11. Design Methodology Top-down design
- Realizing the desired complex behavior of a H/W by
partioing it into an interconnect of simpler subbehavior
- Create lower levels of abstraction from upper levels.
Bottom-up design
-Aims at realizing the desired complex behavior by suitable
selection and interconnection of parts/components from an
available set of parts/components with known behavior.
- Creates abstractions from low-level behavior.
Good design needs both top-down and bottom-up efforts.

12. VLSI Design Flow

13. VLSI Design Flow

14. Structured Design Principles
Hierarchy:
“Divide and conquer” technique involves dividing a module into sub- modules and then repeating this operation on the sub-modules until the complexity of the smaller parts becomes manageable.
Regularity:
The hierarchical decomposition of a large system should result in not only simple, but also similar blocks, as much as possible.
Regularity usually reduces the number of different modules that need to be designed and verified, at all levels of abstraction.

15. Structured Design Principles
Modularity:
The various functional blocks which make up the larger system must have well-defined functions and interfaces.
Locality:
Internal details remain at the local level. The concept of locality also
ensures that connections are mostly between neighboring modules,
avoiding long-distance connections as much as possible.

16. VLSI design process Major levels of abstraction: specification;
architecture;
logic design;
circuit design;
layout.

17. VLSI Design Cycle

18. VLSI Design Cycle System Specification Architectural Design
Logic Design
Circuit Design
Physical Design
Functional Design
Fabrication
Packaging

19. VLSI Design Cycle System Specification
Specification of the size, speed, power and functionality of the VLSI system.
Architectural Design
Decisions on the architecture, e.g., RISC/CISC, # of ALU’s, pipeline structure, cache size, etc. Such decisions can provide an accurate estimation of the system performance, die size, power consumption, etc.

20. VLSI Design Cycle Functional Design
Identify main functional units and their interconnections. No details of implementation.

21. VLSI Design Cycle X = (AB+CD)(E+F) Y= (A(B+C) + Z + D) Logic Design
Design the logic, e.g., boolean expressions, control flow, word width, register allocation, etc. The outcome is called an RTL (Register Transfer Level) description. RTL is expressed in a HDL (Hardware Description Language), e.g., VHDL and Verilog.
X = (AB+CD)(E+F)
Y= (A(B+C) + Z + D)

22. VLSI Design Cycle Circuit Design
Design the circuit including gates, transistors, interconnections, etc. The outcome is called a netlist.

23. VLSI Design Cycle Physical Design
Convert the netlist into a geometric representation. The outcome is called a layout.

24. VLSI Design Cycle Fabrication
Process includes lithography, polishing, deposition, diffusion, etc., to produce a chip.
Packaging
Put together the chips on a PCB (Printed Circuit Board) or an MCM (Multi-Chip Module)

25. VLSI Design Cycle System Specification Architectural Specification
RTL in HDL
Netlist
Layout
Timing & relationship
between functional units
Chips
Packaged and
tested chips
Design
Functional
Logic
Physical
Fabrication
Packaging
Circuit Design or
Logic Synthesis

26. Physical Design Cycle (1/6)
Circuit Partitioning
Floorplanning & Placement
Routing
Layout Compaction
Extraction and Verification

27. Physical Design Cycle (2/6)
Circuit Partitioning
Partition a large circuit into sub-circuits (called blocks). Factors like #blocks, block sizes, interconnection between blocks, etc., are considered.   

28. Physical Design Cycle (3/6)
Floorplanning
Set up a plan for a good layout. Place the modules (modules can be blocks, functional units, etc.) at an early stage when details like shape, area, I/O pin positions of the modules, …, are not yet fixed.
Deadspace

29. Physical Design Cycle (4/6)
Placement – Exact placement of the modules (modules can be gates, standard cells, etc.) when details of the module design are known. The goal is to minimize the delay, total area and interconnect cost. v
Feedthrough
Standard cell type 1
Standard cell type 2

30. Physical Design Cycle (5/6)
Routing – Complete the interconnections between modules. Factors like critical path, clock skew, wire spacing, etc., are considered. Include global routing and detailed routing. v
Feedthrough
Type 1 standard cel1
Type 2 standard cell

31. Physical Design Cycle (6/6)
Compaction – Compress the layout from all directions to minimize the total chip area.
Verification – Check the correctness of the layout. Include DRC (Design Rule Checking), circuit extraction (generate a circuit from the layout to compare with the original netlist), performance verification (extract geometric information to compute resistance, capacitance, delay, etc.)

32. Design Style(1/3)
Physical design is an extremely complex process , even after breaking the entire process into several easier steps.
Each step is computationally very hard .
Market requirements demand quick time-to-market and high yield.
As a result, restricted models and design styles are used to reduce the complexity of physical design.

33. Design Styles (2/3) Broadly DS can be classified as Full-Custom ASICs
Some (possibly all) logic cells are customized and all mask layers are customized .
Semicustom ASICs
All logic cells are predesigned (defined in cell library) and some (possibly all) of the mask layers are customized
Types: Standard-cell based and Gate-array-based ASICs

34. Design Styles (3/3) Selection of DS depends on factors like
Programmable ASICs
All logic cells are predesigned and none of the mask layers are customized
Types: PLD (Programmable Logic Device) and FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array)
Selection of DS depends on factors like
1) type of chip
2) cost
3) time to market, etc.

35. Full-custom ASICs (1/3)
Engineers design some or all of the logic cells, circuits, or layout specifically for one ASIC
Full-custom ICs are the most expensive to manufacture and to design
Manufacturing lead time (the time it takes just to make an IC – not including design time) is typically 8 weeks

36. Full-custom ASICs (2/3) When does it make sense?
there are no suitable existing cell libraries available
existing logic cells are not fast enough
logic cells are not small enough
logic cells consume too much power
Trends: fewer and fewer full-custom ICs are being designed (excluding mixed analog/digital ASICs)

37. Full Custom Design (3/3)

38. Standard-Cell-Based ASICs (1/3)
Cell-Based ASIC (CBIC) uses predesigned cells (AND, OR gates, multiplexers, flip-flops, ...)
Standard-cell areas are built of rows of standard cells
Standard-cell areas can be used in combination with larger predesigned cells (microcontrollers, or even microprocessors), known as megacells
A cell-based ASIC (CBIC) die with a single standard-cell area combined with 4 fixed blocks

39. Standard-Cell-Based ASICs(2/2)
Characteristics
custom blocks can be embedded; ASIC designer defines only the placement of the standard cells and the interconnect in a CBIC
standard cells can be placed anywhere on a silicon => all mask layers of a CBIC are customized
manufacturing lead time is 8 weeks

40. Standard-Cell-Based ASICs (3/3)
Advantages
designers save time, money, and reduce risks using a predesigned, pretested, and precharacterized standard-cell library
standard cells in the library are constructed using full-custom; each standard cell can be optimized individually (for example, to maximize speed, minimize area, etc);
Disadvantages
time or expense of designing or buying the standard-cell library
time needed to fabricate all layers of the ASIC for each new design

41. Gate-Array-Based ASICs
In gate-array-based ASIC transistors are predefined on the silicon wafer
Base cell – the smallest element that is replicated to make the base array.
Base array – the predefined pattern of transistors on a gate array.
Masked Gate Array (MGA): Only layers which define the interconnect between transistors are defined by the designer using custom masks.

42. Gate-Array-Based ASICs (1/4)
Since only metal interconnections are unique for MGA,we can use prefabricated wafers (with completed transistor layers)
the turnaround time is reduced to a few days or at most a couple of weeks
the costs for all the initial prefabrication steps for MGA are shared for each consumer => the cost of an MGA is reduced compared to FC and CBIC
Types: Channeled, Channelless, and Structured Gate Array

43. Gate-Array-Based ASICs (2/4)
Channeled gate array
we leave space between the rows of transistors for wiring
Characteristics
only interconnect is customized
the interconnect uses predefined spaces between rows
manufacturing lead time is between 2 days and 2 weeks

44. Gate-Array-Based ASICs (3/4)
Channelless gate array (sea-of-gates or SOG)
there are no predefined areas set aside for routing between cells
we customize the contact layer that defines the connections between metal1 and transistors
Characteristics
only some (the top few) mask layers are customized – the interconnect
manufacturing lead time is between 2 days and 2 weeks

45. Gate-Array-Based ASICs (4/4)
Structured gate array or embedded gate array:
Combines features of CBIC and MGA motivation:
MGA has only fixed gate-array base cell;difficult and inefficient implementation of memory we set aside some IC area and dedicate it to a specific function(contain different cells, more suitable for building memory cells, for example, or complete block, such as a microcontroller)
Characteristics:
- Only some (the top few) mask layers
are customized – the interconnect
- Custom blocks can be embedded
- Manufacturing lead time is
between 2 days and 2 weeks
Problem: embedded function is fixed

46. Programmable Logic Devices(1/2)
PLDs
standard ICs, available in standard configurations
sold in high volume to many different customers
PLDs may be configured or programmed to create a part customized to specific application
Characteristics
no customized mask layers or logic cells
fast design turnaround
a single large block of programmable interconnect
a matrix of logic macrocells that usually consists of programmable array logic followed by a flip-flop or latch

47. Programmable Logic Devices(2/2)
Types of PLDs
PROM: Uses metal fuse that can be blown permanently
EPROM: Used programmable MOS transistors whose characteristics are altering by
applying a high voltage.
PAL : Programmable Array Logic programmable AND logic array or AND plane, and fixed OR plane
PLA : Programmable Logic Array programmable AND plane followed by programmable OR plane
Depending on how the PLD is programmed
erasable PLD (EPLD) mask-programmed PLD

48. Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA)
a step above the PLD in complexity; it is usually larger and more complex than a PLD
rapidly growing in importance
Characteristics
none of mask layers are customized
a method for programming basic cells and the interconnect
the core is regular array of programmable basic logic cells (combinational + sequential)
a matrix of programmable interconnect that surrounds the basic cells
programmable I/O cells around the core
design turnaround is a few hours

49. Comparison
The choice of design style depends on the intended functionality of the chip, time to market and total number of chips to be manufactured.
Full custom DS is used for microprocessors and other complex volume applications.
While FPGA may be used for simple and low volume applications.
Mixed style may be used.
For large circuits, it is common to partition the circuit into smaller subcircuits which are designed using different team.
Each team may use different DS.

50. Comparison Style Cell size Var. Fixed height Fixed Cell type
Full-custom
Standard cell
Gate Array
FPGA
Cell size
Var.
Fixed height
Fixed
Cell type
Programmable
Cell placement
In row
Interconnections
Design cost
High
Medium
low

51. Comparison Style Area Compact Compact to moderate Moderate Large
Full-custom
Standard cell
Gate Array
FPGA
Area
Compact
Compact to moderate
Moderate
Large
Performance
High
High to moderate
Low
Fabrication
All layers
Routing layers only
No layers