1. Research Methods in Psychology Chapter 2

2. The Research ProcessPsychological MeasurementEthical Issues in Human and Animal ResearchBecoming a Critical Consumer of ResearchRecapping Main Points Chapter 2 Preview

3. The Process of Research Theory All events-physical, behavioral, and mental-determined by specific, potentially knowable causal factors

4. The Process of Research Determinism: Doctrine that all events — physical, behavioral, and mental — are “determined” by specific causal factors that are potentially knowable

5. The Process of Research Step 1 Initial phase of research: Theory Organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon or set of phenomena Psychologists use theories to formulate research questions

6. The Process of Research Step 2 Develop a hypothesis Hypothesis: A tentative and testable explanation of the relationship between two (or more) events or variables

7. The Process of Research Step 3 Design the study

8. The Process of Research Scientific Method: Set of procedures used for gathering and interpreting objective information in a way that minimizes error and yields dependable generalizations Goal is to draw conclusions with maximum objectivity

9. The Process of Research A Challenge to Objectivity Observer Bias Distortion of evidence because of personal motives and expectations of viewer

10. The Process of Research Observer Bias: The Remedy Standardization Set of uniform procedures for treating each participant Operational definition Defined in terms of the specific operation or procedure used to determine its presence All variables in research study must be given operational definitions

11. The Process of Research Research Variables: Variables are factors in experimental setting that change in amount and kind Independent Variable Dependent Variable

12. Research Variables Independent Variable: Factor that is manipulated by researcher Causal part of relationship Dependent Variable: Variable that experimenter measures to assess impact of variation in independent variable Dependent outcome that is observed from manipulation of independent variable

13. Experimental Method: Alternative Explanations and Need for Control Experimental Methods Used to overcome causal ambiguity Researcher manipulates an independent variable to look at its effect on dependent variable

14. Elements of Experiment

15. Experimental Method Challenge to Objectivity Alternative explanations to research These can result from Confounding variables Expectancy effects Placebo effect

16. Experimental Method Confounding Variable Variable other than what experimenter purposely introduced that affects participants behavior Confounding variables add confusion and place interpretation of data at risk

17. Experimental Method Expectancy Effects Results occur when researchers or observers subtly communicate to participants kind of behavior they expect, therefore, creating expected reaction and/or outcome

18. Experimental Method Placebo Effect Occurs when experimental participants change their behavior in absence of any kind of experimental manipulation

19. Experimental Method: The Remedy Control Procedures Consistent procedures for giving instructions, responses, and holding all other variables constant except those being systematically varied Double-blind control Placebo control Between-subjects designs Within-subjects designs

20. Experimental Method: The Remedy Double-blind Control Experimental procedure in which experimenter and subject are unaware as to who received the treatment

21. Experimental Method: The Remedy Placebo Control Inclusion of experimental condition in which treatment is not administered

22. Experimental Method: The Remedy Between-subjects Design Different groups of participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions or to control conditions Within-subjects Design Each participant is his or her own control

23. Experimental Method: The Remedy Sample: Subset of population selected as participants in an experiment Representation Sample: Subset of population being studied Population: Entire set of individuals to which generalizations will be made based on experimental sample

24. Correlational Methods Determine to what extent two variables, traits, or attributes are related Do NOT imply causation Correlational Coefficient (r) Indicates degree of relationship between two variables Correlational Methods

25. Positive and Negative Correlations

26. Psychology in Your Life Does wishful thinking affect how you evaluate information? As you go through life making judgments about how to assess information, think what you might do to keep wishful thinking out of the process.

27. Psychological Measurement Degree to which test produces similar scores each time it is used Stability, consistency Reliability Extent to which test measures what it was intended to test Validity

28. Psychological Measurement Behavior identified through participant’s own observations and reports Self-report Measures

29. Psychological Measurement Overt actions and reactions that are observed and recorded Behavioral Measures

30. Psychological Measurement Behavior is clearly visible and is easily recorded Can be aided by technology Direct observations Naturally occurring behavior is viewed without attempting to change or interfere Naturalistic observations

31. Psychological Measurement Information taken from existing records Examples include birth and death records, weather reports, voting patterns, and attendance figures Archival Data

32. Psychological Measurement Intensive observation of particular individual Case study can also involve intensive observation of small group of individuals Case Study

33. Ethical Issues in Research

34. Factors the review board consider: Informed Consent Risk/Gain Assessment Intentional Deception Debriefing

35. Ethical Issues in Research Informed Consent Research participants are asked to sign statements indicating they have been informed as to potential risks and benefits of study and consent to participate Risk/Gain Assessment Risks to participants must be minimized, especially in studies of more personal aspects of behavior

36. Ethical Issues in Research Intentional Deception For some research it is not possible to tell participants the intention of the study without biasing results American Psychological Association has strict rules on use of deception

37. Ethical Issues in Research Debriefing At the end of all studies each participant must be provided with as much information about study as possible

38. Ethical Issues in Research Issues in Animal Research Should animals be used in psychological and medical research?

39. Critical Thinking in Your Life Why is skill with numbers important? How might you choose a statistic’s format to influence public opinion? Is it ethical to manipulate statistics to make a point you believe is important? Why? Why not?

40. Recapping Chapter 2 Main Points Observer Bias and Operational Definitions Experimental Methods Controls Correlational Methods The Process of Research Reliability and Validity Self Report Observations Psychological Measurement Copyright © Pearson Education 2010

41. Recapping Chapter 2 Main Points Informed Consent Deception and Debriefing Animal Research Ethical Issues in Human and Animal Research Becoming a Critical Consumer of Research