1. Research Methods

2. Conducting Research in the Social Sciences The purposes of the social sciences are: – To describe and explain the behaviour of individuals and families – To predict how they will behave in response to their environments – To suggest ways of managing their behaviour

3. Conducting Research in the Social Sciences Social science research methods are used to: – Ask questions – Gather information – Analyze the information Developing social science research knowledge and skills will help you: – Understand the origins of knowledge presented in books and other sources – Evaluate the validity of the information in books and other sources – Prepare to conduct your own investigations of issues and questions

4. The Research Process Social scientists use the following process when conducting a research study: – Clarify the topic of study by asking questions – Identify specific research questions to be investigated (purpose of the study) – Find out what information is already known. Conduct a review of available literature These are called secondary sources because they present someone else’s analysis second-hand

5. The Research Process – Summarize your literature review to develop a thesis that answers your question – State a hypothesis (a possible answer to your question) – Design an original investigation to gather additional evidence to answer your question The subjects of this investigation are called primary sources, because you will get the information first-hand – Analyze the results of your research to form conclusions that indicate whether your hypothesis was supported or not and to determine whether your question has been answered

6. Research Papers Social scientists write research papers to describe the results of their study for other people. There are two major types: Research essays – The results of a literature review (secondary research) are presented as an essay in which evidence from the research is described to support the thesis Research report – The results of an original investigation of a hypothesis (primary research) are presented as a report in which the method and the results are described – A research report enables others to evaluate the methods to determine whether the results are reliable

7. Research Questions and Hypotheses A research question establishes the purpose of the research A clearly worded research question about a specific aspect of the topic is used to guide researchers in selecting information from secondary sources in their literature review There are two basic types of questions asked in the social sciences: – Description questions ask “What happens?” – Explanation questions ask “Why?” or “How?”

8. Research Questions and Hypotheses A hypothesis is a possible answer to a research question – Developed after the literature review to explain what happens and why it happens A hypothesis usually states a presumed relationship between two or more variables stated in the form “If A, then B” – Though the hypothesis assumes other things are equal, these words are not usually included in the hypothesis itself. Variables are qualities (such as gender or birth order) or behaviours (such as marrying or attending university). – A is the independent variable because it occurs first. A is the cause. – B is the dependent variable because it depends on A. B is the effect.

9. Ethical Research Social science research often involves the use of human subjects, so understanding how to conduct ethical research that respects both the well-being and dignity of the subjects is very important This procedure ensures research meets ethical standards: – Explain the nature of the research to your subjects and obtain their consent to participate (unless you’re observing people in a public setting or conducting an anonymous survey) – If your research requires some sort of deception, you should obtain general consent, and then explain the deception as soon as possible afterward – You must inform the subjects if the research will cause them any physical or emotional discomfort – When designing your study, choose the method that will be most effective while being respectful of the subjects

10. Ethical Research There are also ethical issues when it comes to reporting your research – Do not change, omit, or make up evidence in an attempt to “improve” your report All shortcomings of the study should be identified and discussed in your report – Use citations and references to give credit to the original authors of any work you have consulted To submit all or part of someone else’s work as your own is plagiarism – Inform your subjects of the results as soon as they are available

11. Sample Groups It is impossible to study an entire population because it would take too much time and money to accomplish So researchers use study groups composed of a small subset of the population they wish to study Your sample group should: – Be representative of the population you want to study – Be specific enough to eliminate as many other factors as possible that could confuse the effects of your independent variable. Parameters that should be considered include age, gender, ethnic group, religion, socio-economic class, and level of education

12. Sample Groups One of the constraints of using a sample group is that you cannot generalize beyond the group from which you draw your sample – Ex: If your sample group is selected only within your school, you can not conclude that the results apply to all students in Canada – This is why university students are often called the “white rats” of the social sciences since the majority of studies conducted in North America recruit their sample groups at universities!

13. Social Science Research Methods A hypothesis will suggest the type of information that will be gathered and how the information will be analyzed Quantitative methods gather information from many people, which can be analyzed to describe, explain, and predict patterns of behaviour for groups of people – Results can be analyzed using statistics to generalize from the behaviour of the sample group to predict the behaviour of the entire group Qualitative methods gather detailed information from individuals to help the researcher understand their behaviour – Assumes that each subject may behave differently and does not usually predict the behaviour of others – The results can be analyzed to determine the reasons for the subjects’ behaviour and can be presented anecdotally as case studies

14. Selecting a Research Method The theoretical perspective that the hypothesis reflects also suggests what methods are most appropriate to gather information for the study Let’s look at the methods most commonly associated with each theoretical perspective

15. Selecting a Research Method Functionalism – Uses quantitative methods – Functionalists count observable behaviours and use statistical analyses to determine the norms (consistent behaviours) or the trends (patterns of change in behaviour) – To gather a large number of observations they use the survey method

16. Selecting a Research Method Family Systems Theory – Uses both quantitative ad qualitative methods – Looks at interactions among family members in order to determine: how individuals collaborate to carry our a plan or goal How a change that affects one individual affects the behaviour of other family members How a family adapts to internal or external stimuli. – Observations and interviews are the methods typically used

17. Selecting a Research Method Symbolic Interactionism and Social Exchange Theory – Use quantitative and qualitative methods – Investigate how people interpret their experiences and how they respond – Symbolic interactionism methods include observations and interviews – Social Exchange Theory methods include surveys

18. Selecting a Research Method Developmental Theories – Use quantitative methods – Describe patterns in individuals’ behaviour over time – A large and diverse sample group is needed for identifying patterns, so questionnaires and interviews are used to gather life histories from people – Experiments can also be used to determine cause- and-effect relationships

19. Selecting a Research Method Conflict Theory and Feminist Theories – Use qualitative methods because they believe objective methods that seek only to describe behaviour support social inequalities and do not facilitate change – The methods they use include content analysis

20. Developing Research Methods Quantitative Research Methods Experiments – The experimenter manipulates an independent variable to observe the effects – Subjects are assigned randomly to an experimental group, in which the independent variable is applied, or a control group, in which no variables are applied The behaviour of both groups is then observed – To be valid, the effects should: Affect only the experimental group Be observed when the experiment is repeated

21. Quantitative Research Methods Surveys – The experimenter asks a sample group questions and records their answers. – Questionnaires present the questions to subjects in a written form Usually contain closed questions that require subjects to select from provided answers Can be used with large sample groups – Interviews are usually conducted orally and contain open-ended questions that the subjects can answer freely Can be used for smaller sample groups and for studies in which answers cannot be anticipated

22. Quantitative Research Methods Content Analysis – The researcher examines and classifies the ideas presented in a sample group of communications, such as books, letters, movies, or tv commercials – The researcher defines the variables before conducting the research – It can be difficult to obtain a reliable sample, but is useful for anthropological and historical studies

23. Qualitative Research Methods Observations – The researcher watches and records the subjects’ behaviour – Can be done in a laboratory or natural setting – Subjects may be aware or unaware that they are being observed Interviews – The researcher asks the subject to describe and explain his or her behaviour Useful for determining a subject’s motivation, which is not visible to the researcher – To be valid, the interview questions should ask subjects to discuss actions after they occur rather than to speculate about what they might do

24. Research Reports Title – Identify the main idea of your paper and include the variables Abstract – Write a summary (100-150 words) of the topic you investigated, the methods, the results, and the meaning of the results Introduction – Define the terms, review the literature, relate the study to the review of the literature, and state the purpose of the study

25. Research Reports Methods – Describe the hypothesis and the specific research method you used to test it. – Sample Group Describe the parameters used to select participants and how you selected a representative sample. – Instruments Describe the survey, questionnaire, interview, observation schedule, or experiment used in your investigation. – Procedure Outline step by step how you conducted the research.

26. Research Reports Results – State your main findings, supported by detailed descriptions of the evidence and including case studies or statistical analysis Discussion – Summarize the results, explain how the results relate to the literature review and the theoretical perspective you used in the analysis, and outline the implications of the results – Briefly state your conclusions in a paragraph that ends the discussion References – Include citations to tell the reader where you found the information. – Use in-text citations to refer your reader to the references at the end of the paper that acknowledge all of your sources